Timeline of historic inventions

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The timeline of historic inventions is a chronological list of particularly important or significant technological

inventors, where known.[nb 1]

Paleolithic

The dates listed in this section refer to the earliest evidence of an invention found and dated by archaeologists (or in a few cases, suggested by indirect evidence). Dates are often approximate and change as more research is done, reported and seen. Older examples of any given technology are often found. The locations listed are for the site where the earliest solid evidence has been found, but especially for the earlier inventions, there is little certainty how close that may be to where the invention took place.

Lower Paleolithic

The Lower Paleolithic period lasted over 3 million years, and corresponds to the human species prior to the emergence of Homo sapiens. The original divergence between humans and chimpanzees occurred 13 (Mya), however interbreeding continued until as recently as 4 Ma, with the first species clearly belonging to the human (and not chimpanzee) lineage being Australopithecus anamensis. This time period is characterized as an ice age with regular periodic warmer periods – interglacial episodes. Some species are controversial among paleoanthropologists, who disagree whether they are species on their own or not. Here Homo ergaster is included under Homo erectus, while Homo rhodesiensis is included under Homo heidelbergensis.

Middle Paleolithic

The dawn of Homo sapiens around 300 kya coincides with the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. Towards the middle of this 250,000-year period, humans begin to migrate out of Africa, and the later part of the period shows the beginning of long-distance trade, religious rites and other behavior associated with Behavioral modernity.

Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic

50 ka has been regarded by some as the beginning of behavioral modernity, defining the Upper Paleolithic period, which lasted nearly 40,000 years (though some research dates the beginning of behavioral modernity earlier to the Middle Paleolithic). This is characterized by the widespread observation of religious rites, artistic expression and the appearance of tools made for purely intellectual or artistic pursuits.

Agricultural and proto-agricultural eras

The end of the Last Glacial Period ("ice age") and the beginning of the Holocene around 11.7 ka coincide with the Agricultural Revolution, marking the beginning of the agricultural era, which persisted there until the industrial revolution.

Neolithic and Late Mesolithic

During the Neolithic period, lasting 8400 years, stone remained the predominant material for toolmaking, although copper and arsenic bronze were developed towards the end of this period.

Bronze Age

The Nippur cubit-rod, c. 2650 BCE, in the Archeological Museum of Istanbul, Turkey

The beginning of bronze-smelting coincides with the emergence of the first cities and of writing in the Ancient Near East and the Indus Valley. The Bronze Age starting in Eurasia in the 4th millennia BC and ended, in Eurasia, c.1300 BC.

Iron Age

The

Indus Valley civilisation. This event is followed by the beginning of the Iron Age. We define the Iron Age as ending in 510 BC for the purposes of this article, even though the typical definition is region-dependent (e.g. 510 BC in Greece, 322 BC in India, 200 BC in China), thus being an 800-year period.[nb 5]

ancient crane, a single man tripled the weight he could lift than with his muscular strength alone.[192]

Classical antiquity and medieval era

5th century BC

4th century BC

Egyptian reed pens inside ivory and wooden palettes, the Louvre[220]

3rd century BC

An illustration depicting the papermaking process in Han Dynasty China.
spritsails, appeared in the 2nd century BC in the Aegean Sea on small Greek craft.[243] Here a spritsail used on a Roman
merchant ship (3rd century AD).

2nd century BC

1st century BC

1st century AD

2nd century

3rd century

Schematic of the Roman Hierapolis sawmill. Dated to the 3rd century AD, it is the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.[269][270][271]

4th century

5th century

A Nepali Charkha in action

6th century

7th century

8th century

9th century

Yuan Dynasty
, 1281.

10th century

11th century

12th century

13th century

14th century

The 15th-century invention of the printing press with movable type by the German Johannes Gutenberg.[347]

15th century

Early modern era

16th century

[355][356]

17th century

Relation, the world's first newspaper (first published in 1605)[361][362]

18th century

1700s

1710s

1730s

1740s

1750s

1760s

1770s

1780s

1790s

Late modern period

19th century

1800s

1810s

Karl von Drais on his original Laufmaschine, the earliest two-wheeler, or hobbyhorse, in 1819

1820s

1830s

1840s

1850s

1860s

1870s

1880s

1890s

20th century

1900s

1910s

BERy articulated streetcar no. 2 in 1913. The Boston Elevated Railway was the world's first street railway system to use articulated streetcars.

1920s

1930s

1940-1944

Contemporary history

1945-1950

1950s

1960s

The original 0 series Shinkansen train. Introduced in 1964, it reached a speed of 210 km/h (130 mph).

1970s

1980s

1990s

21st century

2000s

  • 2000: Sony develops the first prototypes for the Blu-ray optical disc format. The first prototype player was released in 2004.
  • 2000: First documented placement of Geocaching, an outdoor recreational activity, in which participants use a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver or mobile device and other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, took place on May 3, 2000, by Dave Ulmer of Beavercreek, Oregon.
  • 2001: The Xbox Launches and is the first game console with internal storage
  • 2004: First podcast, invented by Adam Curry and Dave Winer, is a program made available in digital format for download over the Internet and it usually features one or more recurring hosts engaged in a discussion about a particular topic or current event.[499][500][501]
  • 2005: YouTube, the first popular video-streaming site, was founded
  • 2007: Netflix debuted the first popular video-on-demand service
  • 2007: Apple Inc. released the iPhone
  • 2007: The Bank of Scotland develops the worlds first banking app
  • 2007: SoundCloud, the first on-demand service to focus on music is debuted
  • 2007: First Kindle introduced by Amazon (company) founder and CEO Jeff Bezos, who instructed the company's employees to build the world's best e-reader before Amazon's competitors could. Amazon originally used the codename Fiona for the device. This hardware evolved from the original Kindle introduced in 2007 and the Kindle DX (with its larger 9.7" screen) introduced in 2009.[502]
  • 2008: Satoshi Nakamoto develops the first blockchain.[503]

2010s

2020s

See also

By type

Notes

  1. ^ Dates for inventions are often controversial. Sometimes inventions are invented by several inventors around the same time, or may be invented in an impractical form many years before another inventor improves the invention into a more practical form. Where there is ambiguity, the date of the first known working version of the invention is used here.
  2. ^ Earthen pipes were later used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system,[105] and more durable copper drainage pipes appeared in Egypt, by the time of the construction of the Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir, c.2400 BCE.[106]
  3. Indus Valley civilisation in what today is Pakistan, and North West India, prior to 1500 BCE.[147]
  4. ^ A competing claim is from Lothal dockyard in India,[155][156][157][158][159] constructed at some point between 2400-2000 BC;[160] however, more precise dating does not exist.
  5. ^ the uncertainty in dating several Indian developments between 600 BC and 300 AD, due to the tradition that existed of editing existing documents (such as the Sushruta Samhita and Arthashastra) without specifically documenting the edit. Most such documents were canonized at the start of the Gupta empire (mid-3rd century AD).
  6. ^ A 10th century AD, Damascus steel blade, analysed under an electron microscope, contains nano-meter tubes in its metal alloy. Their presence has been suggested to be down to transition-metal impurities in the ores once used to produce Wootz Steel in South India.[195]
  7. ^ Although it is recorded that the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) court eunuch Cai Lun (born c. 50–121 AD) invented the pulp papermaking process and established the use of new raw materials used in making paper, ancient padding and wrapping paper artifacts dating to the 2nd century BC have been found in China, the oldest example of pulp papermaking being a map from Fangmatan, Gansu.[244]

Footnotes

  1. PMID 10213682
    .
  2. ^ Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy (2009), "African Origins", in Scarre, Chris (ed.), The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (2nd ed.), London: Thames and Hudson, pp. 67–68
  3. ^ "Invention of cooking drove evolution of the human species, new book argues". harvard.edu. 1 June 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  4. ^ "Until the Wonderwerk Cave find, Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, a lakeside site in Israel, was considered to have the oldest generally accepted evidence of human-controlled fire".
  5. S2CID 146473957. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 12 December 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2012.
  6. ^ "Anthropologists have yet to find an Acheulian hand axe gripped in a Homo erectus fist but most credit Homo erectus with developing the technology."
  7. S2CID 4419567
    .
  8. .
  9. .
  10. ^ "Early humans make bone tools". Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program. 17 February 2010. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  11. ^ "Plakias Survey Finds Mesolithic and Palaeolithic Artifacts on Crete". www.ascsa.edu.gr. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
  12. ^ First Mariners – Archaeology Magazine Archive. Archive.archaeology.org. Retrieved on 16 November 2013.
  13. S2CID 206544031
    .
  14. .
  15. ^ "BBC News – SCI/TECH – Earliest evidence of art found". BBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  16. ^ Kouwenhoven, Arlette P., World's Oldest Spears
  17. PMID 26212768
    .
  18. ^ Chatterjee, Rhitu (15 March 2018). "Scientists Are Amazed By Stone Age Tools They Dug Up In Kenya". NPR. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  19. ^ Yong, Ed (15 March 2018). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 March 2018.
  20. PMID 29545508
    .
  21. .
  22. .
  23. .
  24. .
  25. ^ "200,000 years ago, humans preferred to sleep in beds". phys.org. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  26. ^ "The oldest known grass beds from 200,000 years ago included insect repellents". Science News. 13 August 2020. Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  27. S2CID 221113832
    . Retrieved 6 September 2020.
  28. .
  29. on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
  30. .
  31. .
  32. ^ Amos, Jonathan (13 October 2011). "A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - Ancient 'paint factory' unearthed". BBC News. Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  33. Washington Post
    . Retrieved 13 October 2011.
  34. S2CID 40455940
    .
  35. . Retrieved 25 March 2011.
  36. .
  37. .
  38. ^ Wadley, Lyn (2008). "The Howieson's Poort industry of Sibudu Cave". South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series. 10.
  39. S2CID 162438490
    .
  40. .
  41. .
  42. ^ D. L. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; M. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte; H. Collado; R. de Balbín; M. Lorblanchet; J. Ramos-Muñoz; G.-Ch. Weniger; A. W. G. Pike (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science. 359 (6378): 912–915.
    PMID 29472483
    .
    "we present dating results for three sites in Spain that show that cave art emerged in Iberia substantially earlier than previously thought. Uranium-thorium (U-Th) dates on carbonate crusts overlying paintings provide minimum ages for a red linear motif in La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalucía). Collectively, these results show that cave art in Iberia is older than 64.8 thousand years (ka). This cave art is the earliest dated so far and predates, by at least 20 ka, the arrival of modern humans in Europe, which implies Neandertal authorship."
  43. ^ "World's oldest known ground-edge stone axe fragments found in WA". ABC News. 11 May 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2018.
  44. ^ Swaziland Natural Trust Commission, "Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern", Retrieved 27 August 2007, "Swaziland National Trust Commission – Cultural Resources – Malolotja Archaeology, Lion Cavern". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016..
  45. ^ Peace Parks Foundation, "Major Features: Cultural Importance". Republic of South Africa: Author. Retrieved 27 August 2007, [1].
  46. .
  47. ^ Connolly, Tom. "The World's Oldest Shoes". University of Oregon. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 22 July 2012.
  48. PMID 22847420
    .
  49. ^ "Earliest music instruments found". BBC News. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
  50. PMID 22575323
    .
  51. – via www.persee.fr.
  52. ^ "Dolni Vestonice and Pavlov sites". Donsmaps.com. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
  53. S2CID 56326310
    . Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  54. .
  55. ^ "Centuries-old fabric found in Çatalhöyük". Hürriyet Daily News. 4 February 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  56. .
  57. ^ Lucentini, Jack. "Dr. Michael A. Rappenglueck sees maps of the night sky, and images of shamanistic ritual teeming with cosmological meaning". space. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
  58. ^ "BBC News - SCI/TECH - Ice Age star map discovered". BBC News. Retrieved 13 April 2018.
  59. ^ Small, Meredith F. (April 2002). "String theory: the tradition of spinning raw fibers dates back 28,000 years (At The Museum)". Natural History. 111 (3): 14(2).
  60. ^ "Ceramic history". depts.washington.edu.
  61. PMID 33495362
    . Advances in the isolation and sequencing of ancient DNA [... suggest] that dogs were domesticated in Siberia by ~23,000 y ago, possibly while both people and wolves were isolated during the harsh climate of the Last Glacial Maximum.
  62. ^ Michael Price (16 September 2016). "World's oldest fish hook found on Okinawa". Science. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
  63. ^ "World's oldest fish hooks found in Japanese island cave". BBC News. 18 September 2016. Retrieved 18 September 2016.
  64. ^ "Chinese pottery may be earliest discovered". Associated Press. 1 June 2009
  65. British Broadcasting Corporation
    . Retrieved 17 July 2018.
  66. PMID 30012614
    .
  67. ^ "Farming Was So Nice, It Was Invented at Least Twice". sciencemag.org. 4 July 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  68. ^ "The Development of Agriculture". nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 14 April 2016. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  69. .
  70. .
  71. .
  72. ^ Curry, Andrew. "Gobekli Tepe: The World's First Temple?". smithsonianmag.com. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  73. .
  74. .
  75. . Retrieved 16 February 2013.
  76. ^ "Stone Age wells found in Cyprus". BBC News. 25 June 2009. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
  77. ^ "World's ever first known town – Catalhuyuk | Cities Now". Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  78. PMID 15590771
    .
  79. ^ Grimm, David (26 May 2017). "Earliest evidence for dog breeding found on remote Siberian island". Science. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
  80. S2CID 144332393
    .
  81. .
  82. ^ . Retrieved 12 January 2019.
  83. ^ Lawton, H. W.; Wilke, P. J. (1979). "Ancient Agricultural Systems in Dry Regions of the Old World". In Hall, A. E.; Cannell, G. H.; Lawton, H.W. (eds.). Agriculture in Semi-Arid Environments. Ecological Studies. Vol. 34 (reprint ed.). Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media (published 2012). p. 13. . Retrieved 12 January 2019.
  84. .
  85. .
  86. ^ John Coleman Darnell (2006). "The Wadi of the Horus Qa-a: A Tableau of Royal Ritual Power in the Theban Western Desert". Yale University. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
  87. ^ The sea-craft of prehistory, p76, by Paul Johnstone, Routledge, 1980
  88. ^ Rehren, Thilo; Radivojević, Miljana; Pernicka, Ernst. "On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe (Radivojevic et al 2010, JAS 37)". academia.edu. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  89. PMID 31851675
    .
  90. .
  91. ^ Loewe (1968), 170–171
  92. .
  93. .
  94. , p. 22.
  95. . Retrieved 5 October 2012.
  96. .
  97. ^ Muhly, J.D., The Beginnings of Metallurgy in the Old World. In Maddin 1988
  98. ^ Thoury, M.; et al. (2016). "High spatial dynamics-photoluminescence imaging reveals the metallurgy of the earliest lost-wax cast object". Nature Communications. 7. doi:10.1038/ncomms13356.
  99. .
  100. ^ Hershey, W. (1940). The Book of Diamonds. New York: Hearthside Press. pp. 22–28. .
  101. .
  102. ..
  103. .
  104. ^ .
  105. ^ Jared Diamond "The Third Chimpanzee"
  106. ^ D. T. Potts (2012). A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East. p. 285.
  107. .
  108. .
  109. ^ Matossian Shaping World History p. 43
  110. ^ "What We Theorize – When and Where Domestication Occurred". International Museum of the Horse. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
  111. ^ "Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction". Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald. CBC Radio. 7 March 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2010.
  112. ISSN 0275-5769
    . Retrieved 15 September 2010.
  113. .
  114. ^ "Institute of Archeology of CAS report". Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
  115. ^ B. B. Lal, India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization
  116. S2CID 162580662
    .
  117. ^ Deter-Wolf, Aaron (11 November 2015), It's official: Ötzi the Iceman has the oldest tattoos in the world, RedOrbit.com, retrieved 25 July 2019
  118. .
  119. ^ "The world's earliest known writing systems emerged at more or less the same time, around 3300 bc, in Egypt and Mesopotamia (today's Iraq)."Teeter, Emily (2011). Before the Pyramids: The Origins of Egyptian Civilization. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 99.
  120. .
  121. .
  122. ^ Frangipane, M. et.al. (2010). "The collapse of the 4th millennium centralised system at Arslantepe and the far-reaching changes in 3rd millennium societies". ORIGINI XXXIV, 2012: 237–60.
  123. ^ . Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  124. ^ "Uruk: The First City". www.metmuseum.org. 2003. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  125. ^ Davis, Nicola (30 August 2016). "It becometh the iceman: clothing study reveals stylish secrets of leather-loving ancient". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 August 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  126. ^ Romey, Kristin (18 August 2016). "Here's What the Iceman Was Wearing When He Died 5,300 Years Ago". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 August 2016. Retrieved 18 August 2016.
  127. PMID 27537861
    .
  128. .
  129. .
  130. .
  131. .
  132. ^ "8 Oldest Board Games in the World". Oldest.org. 29 November 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  133. PMID 26587512
    .
  134. ^ Possehl, Gregory. "Meluhha". In: J. Reade (ed.) The Indian Ocean in Antiquity. London: Kegan Paul Intl. 1996a, 133–208
  135. .
  136. .
  137. ^ "Papyrus: A Brief History – Dartmouth Ancient Books Lab". sites.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  138. .
  139. ^ a b "4,500-year-old harbor structures and papyrus texts unearthed in Egypt". NBC News. 16 April 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  140. OCLC 224463869
    .
  141. ^ "World's oldest writing not poetry but a shopping receipt". 13 April 2011.
  142. .
  143. .
  144. .
  145. .
  146. .
  147. .
  148. ^ Khan, Dr Saifullah. "Chapter 2 Sanitation and wastewater technologies in Harappa/Indus valley civilization (ca. 2600-1900 BC)".
  149. ^ Harappa, com. "'Great Bath' Mohenjadaro". Slide show with description by J. M. Kenoyer. Harappa.com. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  150. ^ "Indus River Valley Civilizations". History-world.org. Archived from the original on 1 July 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
  151. ^ Rahmstorf, Lorenz. "In Search of the Earliest Balance Weights, Scales and Weighing Systems from the East Mediterranean, the Near and Middle East".
  152. ^ Stainburn, Samantha (18 April 2013). "Archeologists discover oldest Egyptian harbor ever found". Global Post. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
  153. ^ "Foraminifera as an additional tool for archaeologists - Examples from the Arabian Sea". 25 September 2015.
  154. ^ Codebò, Mario (2013). "ARCHAEOASTRONOMICAL SURVEYS IN LOTHAL (INDIA)". www.archaeoastronomy.it. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  155. .
  156. ^ Rao, pages 27–28
  157. ^ "Archaeological remains of a Harappa Port-Town, Lothal". UNESCO. UN. Retrieved 10 May 2020.
  158. S. R. Rao (1985). Lothal. Archaeological Survey of India
    . pp. 11–17.
  159. ^ "Pulling the strings to resuscitate a dying art". The Hindu. Thanjavur, India. 17 August 2012.
  160. .
  161. .
  162. .
  163. . pp. 40–41.
  164. ^ Rao (July 1992). "A Navigational Instrument of the Harappan Sailors" (PDF). Marine Archaeology. 3: 61–66. Notes: protractor described as "compass" in article.
  165. .
  166. . Retrieved 11 May 2007. It appears that two artifacts from Mohenjadaro and Harappa might correspond to these two instruments. Joshi and Parpola (1987) lists a few pots tapered at the bottom and having a hole on the side from the excavations at Mohenjadaro (Figure 3). A pot with a small hole to drain the water is very similar to clepsydras described by Ohashi to measure the time (similar to the utensil used over the lingum in Shiva temple for abhishekam).
  167. ^ David S. Anthony, The Horse, The Wheel and Language: How bronze age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world (2007), pp. 397-405.
  168. ^ "History 101: Scissors". Daily Kos. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  169. ^ "British Library". www.bl.uk. Archived from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  170. .
  171. ^ Lienhard, John H. "No. 993: SUNDIALS". The Engines of Our Ingenuity. Huston Public Media. Retrieved 1 March 2022.
  172. ^ "Glassmaking may have begun in Egypt, not Mesopotamia". Science News. 22 November 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  173. ^ History Channel, Where Did It Come From? Episode: "Ancient China: Agriculture"
  174. ^ "Rubber balls used in Mesoamerican game 3,500 years ago". The Independent. 1 June 2010. Archived from the original on 7 May 2022. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  175. ^ Shelton, pp. 109–110. There is wide agreement on game originating in the tropical lowlands, likely the Gulf Coast or Pacific Coast.
  176. ^ Heinrich Schliemann; Wilhelm Dörpfeld; Felix Adler (1885). Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns, the Results of the Latest Excavations. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 190, 203–04, 215.
  177. ].
  178. ^ Jacobsen T and Lloyd S, (1935) "Sennacherib's Aqueduct at Jerwan", Oriental Institute Publications 24, Chicago University Press
  179. ^ Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"
  180. ^ "The History of Concrete". Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Archived from the original on 27 November 2012. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
  181. ^ "What is a Lathe Machine? History, Parts, and Operation". Brighthub Engineering. 12 December 2009. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  182. . p. 372
  183. ^ Rao, KP. "Iron Age in South India: Telangana and Andhra Pradesh". In Akinori Uesugi (ed.). Iron Age in South Asia – via Academia.
  184. ^ Levey, Martin (1959). Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia. Elsevier. p. 36. As already mentioned, the textual evidence for Sumero-Babylonian distillation is disclosed in a group of Akkadian tablets describing perfumery operations, dated ca. 1200 B.C.
  185. , 9780806115849 P.18-22
  186. .
  187. ^ Loades, Mike (2018), The Crossbow, Osprey
  188. ^ M. Kroll, review of G. Le Rider's La naissance de la monnaie, Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 80 (2001), p. 526. D. Sear, Greek Coins and Their Values Vol. 2, Seaby, London, 1979, p. 317.
  189. ^ Hans-Liudger, Dienel; Wolfgang, Meighörner (1997): "Der Tretradkran", Technikgeschichte series, 2nd ed., Deutsches Museum, München, p. 13
  190. .
  191. ^ Srinivasan, S.; Ranganathan, S. "Wootz Steel: an advanced material of the ancient world". Bangalore: Department of Metallurgy, Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018.
  192. S2CID 136774602
    .
  193. ^ Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1907). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India: Osteology or the Bones of the Human Body. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
  194. , page 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries"
  195. .
  196. .
  197. ^ .
  198. ^ Dwivedi, Girish & Dwivedi, Shridhar (2007). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence Archived 10 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine. National Informatics Centre (Government of India).
  199. ^ Curtis 2008, p. 375.
  200. ^ Frankel, Rafael (2003): "The Olynthus Mill, Its Origin, and Diffusion: Typology and Distribution", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 1–21 (17–19)
  201. ^ Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (159)
  202. ^ "Reserve Bank of India - Publications". In ancient India, loan deed forms called rnapatra or rnalekhya were in use. These contained details such as the name of the debtor and the creditor, the amount of loan, the rate of interest, the condition of repayment and the time of repayment. The deed was witnessed by a person of respectable means and endorsed by the loan-deed writer. Execution of loan deeds continued during the Buddhist period, when they were called inapanna.
  203. , pp 1-5.
  204. , 9780806115849 P.28
  205. , 9780195002669 P.14
  206. .
  207. ^
  208. ^
  209. ^ a b Wagner (2001), 7, 36–37, 64–68. 335.
  210. ^ Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 30.
  211. ^ Pigott (1999), 177.
  212. ^ Beckmann, Martin (2002): "The 'Columnae Coc(h)lides' of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius", Phoenix, Vol. 56, No. 3/4, pp. 348–357 (354)
  213. , p. 77
  214. ^ M. J. T. Lewis, "The Origins of the Wheelbarrow", Technology and Culture, Vol. 35, No. 3. (July 1994), pp. 470
  215. ^ Needham, Joseph (1965). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., page 265
  216. ^ "What is a camera obscura?". Camera Obscura and World of Illusions Edinburgh. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  217. ^ "Palette de scribe". Antiquités égyptiennes du Louvre (in French).
  218. ^ . Developed in China between the fifth and fourth centuries BC, it reached the Mediterranean by the sixth century AD
  219. ^ Bates, W. N. (1902). "Etruscan Horseshoes from Corneto — AJA 6:398‑403". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 7 January 2022.
  220. ^ Curtis 2008, p. 376.
  221. ^ de Vos 2011, p. 178.
  222. ^ Vikramaditya S. Khanna (2005). The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. University of Michigan.
  223. ^ "Reserve Bank of India - Publications". In the Mauryan period, an instrument called adesha was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person
  224. .
  225. ^ Vergiani, Vincenzo (2017), "Bhartrhari on Language, Perception, and Consciousness", in Ganeri, Jonardon (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Indian Philosophy, Oxford University Press
  226. ^ Craddock et al. 1983. (The earliest evidence for the production of zinc comes from India. Srinivasan, Sharda and Srinivasa Rangnathan. 2004)
  227. ^ Srinivasan, Ranganathan. "Mettalurgical heritage of India". Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  228. ^ Rina Shrivastva (1999). "Smelting furnaces in Ancient India" (PDF). Indian Journal of History & Science,34(1), Digital Library of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
  229. . Retrieved 28 May 2013. The earliest known analog computing device is the Antikythera mechanism.
  230. ^ "Archimedes' Screw". Kenyon. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  231. ^ Moore, Frank Gardner (1950): "Three Canal Projects, Roman and Byzantine", American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 97–111 (99–101)
  232. ^ Froriep, Siegfried (1986): "Ein Wasserweg in Bithynien. Bemühungen der Römer, Byzantiner und Osmanen", Antike Welt, 2nd Special Edition, pp. 39–50 (46)
  233. ^ Schörner, Hadwiga (2000): "Künstliche Schiffahrtskanäle in der Antike. Der sogenannte antike Suez-Kanal", Skyllis, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 28–43 (33–35, 39)
  234. JSTOR 3184857
  235. .
  236. , pp. 217–302 (233)
  237. ^ Carter, Ernest Frank (1967). Dictionary of Inventions and Discoveries. Philosophical Library. p. 74.
  238. ^ Pigott (1999), 183–184.
  239. , pp. 243–245
  240. ^ Buisseret (1998), 12.
  241. S2CID 11949042
    .
  242. , p. 171
  243. , pp. 429–437
  244. ^  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domainChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Acta Diurna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 159.
  245. ^ "Newspaper - MSN Encarta". Archived from the original on 6 December 2008. Retrieved 17 December 2008.
  246. ^ Irving Fang, A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions, Focal Press, 1997, p. 30
  247. ^ Lamont, Ian, "The Rise of the Press in Late Imperial China", 27 November 2007
  248. , pp. 25–49 (33–35)
  249. ^ Schnitter, Niklaus (1978): "Römische Talsperren", Antike Welt, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 25–32 (31f.)
  250. , pp. 9–20 (12)
  251. , pp. 75–96 (80)
  252. , pp. 331–339 (332, fn. 2)
  253. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 184.
  254. .
  255. ^ Davies, Oliver: Roman Mines in Europe, Oxford (1935)
  256. S2CID 4385122
    .
  257. ^ "turbine". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Retrieved 18 July 2007.
  258. ^ Naturalis_Historia/Liber_XXXIII#XL  (in Latin) – via Wikisource.
  259. .
  260. ^ Sleeswyk AW, Sivin N (1983). "Dragons and toads: the Chinese seismoscope of BC. 132". Chinese Science. 6: 1–19.
  261. .
  262. ^ Baber (1996), page 57
  263. ^ Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007): "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 20, pp. 138–163 (140, 161)
  264. , pp. 429–454 (429)
  265. ^ Grewe, Klaus (2010): "La máquina romana de serrar piedras. La representación en bajorrelieve de una sierra de piedras de la antigüedad, en Hierápolis de Frigia y su relevancia para la historia técnica (translation by Miguel Ordóñez)", in: Las técnicas y las construcciones de la Ingeniería Romana, V Congreso de las Obras Públicas Romanas, pp. 381–401
  266. .
  267. .
  268. ^ Wilson, Andrew (1995): "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel", Journal of Roman Archaeology, Vol. 8, pp. 499–510 (507f.)
  269. , pp. 371–400 (377)
  270. ^ Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002): "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology", Anatolian Studies, Vol. 52, pp. 1–17 (13)
  271. .
  272. .
  273. ^ "Hindi and the origins of chess". chessbase.com. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 8 March 2014.
  274. .
  275. ^ The American Journal of Science. 1919. Retrieved 30 June 2009.
  276. , 187–189.
  277. .
  278. ^ "suspension bridge" in Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
  279. ^ Hucker (1975), 206.
  280. ^ Ronan (1994), 41.
  281. ^ "ASTM International – Standards Worldwide". www.astm.org. Archived from the original on 6 July 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  282. ^ De Rebus Bellicis (anon.), chapter XVII, text edited by Robert Ireland, in: BAR International Series 63, part 2, p. 34
  283. ^ On the Corrosion Resistance of the Delhi Iron Pillar, R. Balasubramaniam, Corrosion Science, Volume 42 (2000) pp. 2103–2129. Corrosion Science is a publication specialized in corrosion science and engineering.
  284. .
  285. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 28.
  286. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 322.
  287. , p. 92
  288. ^ Warren, John (1991): "Creswell's Use of the Theory of Dating by the Acuteness of the Pointed Arches in Early Muslim Architecture", Muqarnas, Vol. 8, pp. 59–65 (61–63)
  289. ^ Schafer (1963), pages 160-161
  290. ^ Bedini (1994), pages 69-80
  291. . The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D.
  292. , pp. 30–32
  293. ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 123.
  294. ^ Hunter (1978), 207.
  295. .
  296. ^ Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 607–609
  297. ^ Theophanes & Turtledove 1982, p. 52
  298. ^ Roland 1992, p. 657; Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 608
  299. ^ Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 156.
  300. ^ Bowman (2000), 105.
  301. ^ Gernet (1962), 80.
  302. ^ Wood (1999), 49.
  303. , 9780465037223: pp. 2-5
  304. ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 8–9, 80–82.
  305. ^ Needham (1987), Volume 5, Part 7, 70–73, 120–124.
  306. ^ Gernet (1996), 311.
  307. ^ Day & McNeil (1996), 785.
  308. ^ Needham 1954, pp. 131–132.
  309. .
  310. .
  311. ^ Needham 2004, p. 328 "it is also now rather well-established that dominoes and playing-cards were originally Chinese developments from dice."
  312. ^ Needham 2004, p. 332 "Numbered dice, anciently widespread, were on a related line of development which gave rise to dominoes and playing-cards (+9th-century China)."
  313. ^ "9 World Changing Inventions from the Middle East". thaqafamagazine.com. 5 December 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  314. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 224–225, 232–233, 241–244.
  315. . Retrieved 30 July 2013.
  316. ^ Gernet (1962), 186.
  317. . ...not more than a few days passed before the craftsman, to whom the construction of this contrivance had been described, brought in the pen, fashioned from gold. He then filled it with ink and wrote with it, and it really did write. The pen released a little more ink than was necessary. Hence al-Mu'izz ordered that it should be adjusted slightly, and he did this. He brought forward the pen and behold, it turned out to be a pen which can be turned upside down in the hand and tipped from side to side, and no trace of ink appears from it. When a secretary takes up the pen and writes with it, he is able to write in the most elegant script that could possibly be desired; then, when he lifts the pen off the sheet of writing material, it holds in the ink. I observed that it was a wonderful piece of work, the like of which I had never imagined I would ever see.
  318. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 111.
  319. ^ Needham, Volume 5, Part 1, 201–202.
  320. ^ Gernet (1996), 335.
  321. ^ Bowman (2000), 599.
  322. ^ Day & McNeil (1996), 70.
  323. ^ "A Brief History of Rocketry". Solarviews.com. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
  324. . Retrieved 26 March 2018 – via Internet Archive.
  325. ^ Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486–500 (497f. & 500)
  326. .
  327. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 170–174.
  328. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 171.
  329. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 293–294.
  330. .
  331. ^ Inuit hero Nanook from the silent documentary film Nanook of the North (1922) wearing whale bone snow-goggles Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved December 5, 2014
  332. ^ Ament, Phil (4 December 2006). "Sunglasses History – The Invention of Sunglasses". The Great Idea Finder. Vaunt Design Group. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
  333. ^ Vision, Website. "Torquay Museum". Torquay Museum. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
  334. .
  335. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 175–176, 192.
  336. ^ Vincent Ilardi, Renaissance Vision from Spectacles to Telescopes (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: American Philosophical Society, 2007), page 5.
  337. S2CID 112733319
    .
  338. ^ Needham (1986), Volume 5, Part 7, 203–205.
  339. ^ "Proving their mettle in metal craft". The Times of India. 2 January 2012. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
  340. Christian era
    .
  341. ^ ., p.126-127
  342. White, Lynn
    (1962): "Medieval Technology and Social Change", At the Clarendon Press, Oxford, p. 112
  343. ^ Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Vol. 1. C. Knight. 1833. pp. 373–374. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  344. ^ "harquebus weapon". Britannica.com. Retrieved 5 January 2016.
  345. ^ Stimson, Alan (1985): "The Mariner's Astrolabe. A Survey of 48 Surviving Examples", UC Biblioteca Geral, Coimbra, p. 576
  346. JSTOR 44148394
    .
  347. Encyclopedia Iranica
    . pp. 261–265. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  348. .
  349. ^ Sarton, George (1946): "Floating Docks in the Sixteenth Century", Isis, Vol. 36, No. 3/4, pp. 153–154 (153f.)
  350. ^ "William Lee English inventor". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
  351. Savage-Smith, Emilie
    (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC
  352. ^ "Celestial globe". National Museums Scotland. Archived from the original on 14 June 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
  353. ^ a b World Association of Newspapers: "Newspapers: 400 Years Young!" Archived 10 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  354. ^ a b Weber, Johannes (2006): "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 387–412 (396f.)
  355. ^ David Macaulay, The Way Things Work Now, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt – 2016, page 383
  356. ^ Michelle Selinger, Teaching Mathematics (1994), p. 142.
  357. ^ "The Galileo Project". Galileo.rice.edu. Retrieved 31 October 2012.
  358. ^ "A Brief History of the Calculator I Oxford Open Learning". www.ool.co.uk. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  359. ^ "The Invention of the Barometer". Islandnet.com. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
  360. ISSN 0042-207X
    .
  361. ^ "The invention of the pendulum clock | THE SEIKO MUSEUM GINZA". THE SEIKO MUSEUM. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  362. .
  363. .
  364. ^ Thurston, pp 25
  365. , retrieved 11 April 2023
  366. .
  367. ^ Lord, John (1903). Memoir of John Kay, of Bury: Inventory of the Fly-Shuttle. Rochdale: J. Clegg.
  368. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  369. ^ Narasimha, Roddam (27 July 2011). "Rockets in Mysore and Britain, 1750–1850 A.D." (PDF). National Aeronautical Laboratory and Indian Institute of Science. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.
  370. ^ "The Arc Lamp". Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
  371. .
  372. ^ "Programming patterns: the story of the Jacquard loom". Science and Industry Museum. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
  373. ^ "Richard Trevithick's steam locomotive | Rhagor". Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
  374. S2CID 43428862
    .
  375. ^ "First wristwatch | Breguet". www.breguet.com. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
  376. ^ "1816-1882: Early Stethoscope". EMS Museum. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  377. ^ R. Sier (1999)
  378. .
  379. ^ Hounshell 1984, p. 35
  380. .
  381. ^ "John Walker's Friction Light". BBC. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
  382. ^ "What Is Braille?". The American Foundation for the Blind. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  383. ISSN 1943-4804
    .
  384. ^ Daniel, Authors: Malcolm. "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  385. .
  386. ^ Steven Roberts. "Distant Writing – Bain".
  387. ^ "Walter Hunt | Lemelson". lemelson.mit.edu. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  388. ^ "Model of Jenning's patent water closet | Science Museum Group Collection". collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
  389. ^ Goodwin, Jason OTIS GIVING RISE TO THE MODERN CITY, Chicago, 2001: Ivan R. Dee, Publisher, pp. 5-21
  390. ^ "An Act to render valid a Patent heretofore granted to James Harrison for Manufacturing Ice" (PDF). Flinders University, Adelaide.
  391. ^ Deng, Yuliang. "CARBON FIBER ELECTRONIC INTERCONNECTS".
  392. . Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  393. .
  394. ^ "The History of the Edison Cylinder Phonograph". Library of Congress.
  395. ^ Quick, D. (1970). "A History Of Closed Circuit Oxygen Underwater Breathing Apparatus". Royal Australian Navy, School of Underwater Medicine. RANSUM-1-70. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Retrieved 25 August 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  396. ^ Friedel, Robert, and Paul Israel. 1986. Edison's electric light: biography of an invention. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pages 115–117
  397. ^ Kenneth E. Hendrickson III, The Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in World History, Volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield – 2014, page 564
  398. ^ Maury Klein, The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America, Bloomsbury Publishing USA – 2010, Chapter 9 – The Cowbird, The Plugger, and the Dreamer
  399. ^ David O. Whitten, Bessie Emrick Whitten, Handbook of American Business History: Manufacturing, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990, pages 315-316
  400. ^ "Beginnings of submerged arc welding" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
  401. ^ "Bicycle Association leads birthday celebrations for JK Starley, creator of the Safety bicycle". bicycleassociation.org. Bicycle Association. Archived from the original on 4 January 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  402. ]
  403. PDF, 561 kB, German
    )
  404. ^ Great Britain Patent No. 15630, 30 October 2008
  405. ^ "Today in History - August 31". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
  406. . Retrieved 13 September 2010.
  407. ^ Cartons, Crates and Corrugated Board: Handbook of Paper and Wood Packaging. by Diana Tweede and Susan E M Selke, DESTech Publications, 2005, p.24
  408. ^ "Patent 39916 Summary". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  409. ^ Born in the USA: The Book of American Origins. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. 2009. p. 186. William Halsted and rubber gloves.
  410. ^ "Rubber Gloves: "Born" - and Now Banished - At Johns Hopkins - 01/14/2008". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  411. ISSN 0190-8286
    . Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  412. ^ Brown, Walter (12 December 2016). "The History of Disposable Gloves". AMMEX. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  413. ^ "Ansell - Our history". www.ansell.com. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
  414. ^ [2], "Surgeon's glove having improved donning properties", issued 1995-04-17 
  415. PMID 32450110
    .
  416. . page 643: Erwähnt sei noch, dass aus einer ätherischen Diazomethanlösung sich beim Stehen manchmal minimale Quantitäten eines weissen, flockigen, aus Chloroform krystallisirenden Körpers abscheiden; ... (It should be mentioned that from an ether solution of diazomethane, upon standing, sometimes small quantities of a white, flakey substance, which can be crystallized from chloroform, precipitate; ... )
  417. ^ Gantz, Carroll (21 September 2012). The Vacuum Cleaner: A History. McFarland. p. 49
  418. ^ , accessed 7 July 2019
  419. ^ Personnage Larousse, accessed 7 July 2019
  420. ^ Anthony Roux (2 July 2009) Simulation aux Grandes Echelles d'un statoréacteur, p.15, University of Toulouse, "...La propulsion par statoreacteur a été inventée par le francais René Lorin en 1907 et decrite pour la ´ premiere fois dans la revue ` l'aerophile ´ dans un article intitule "Propulseur par reaction directe"...", accessed 7 July 2019
  421. search criteria (google): "discovery of scramjet Frank Whittle"
    , accessed 7 July 2019
  422. BnF Gallica
    , accessed 7 July 2019
  423. , accessed 7 July 2019
  424. ^ "A non-rusting steel". The New York Times. 31 January 1915.
  425. ^ "TractorData.com - Three-Point Hitch". www.tractordata.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  426. ^ "The "Televisor" Successful Test of New Apparatus", The Times (London), Thursday 28 January 1926, p. 9 column C.
  427. ^ "Who invented the television? How people reacted to John Logie Baird's creation 90 years ago". The Telegraph. 26 January 2016. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016.
  428. ^ "Who invented the mechanical television? (John Logie Baird)". Google. 26 January 2016.
  429. on 13 May 2007.
  430. ^ "History – Frank Whittle (1907–1996)". BBC. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
  431. ^ "Espacenet - Original document". worldwide.espacenet.com.
  432. ^ Current affairs, science and technology notes ClearIAS accessed 7 July 2019
  433. ^ "Scramjet Engine: Why in News Headlines Now?". 1 February 2017.
  434. ^ Everest, Herbert A., Jennings, Harry C. Sr., "Folding wheel chair", US Patent 2095411, 1937
  435. ^ "X-brace construction for collapsible invalids' wheel chairs".
  436. ^ "Wallace Hume Carothers". Science History Institute. June 2016. Retrieved 20 March 2018.
  437. ^ a b The Technology of Nuclear Weapons, Arms Control Association, accessed 9 January 2020
  438. ^ a b Plutonium 239 Archived 18 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine, EDP-Sciences (EDITIONS DE PHYSIQUE) (& the Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et Physique des Particules (IN2P3) accessed 9 January 2020
  439. ^ Plutonium, published by the Atomic Heritage Foundation & the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (of the United States) 5 June 2014 – accessed 2020-1-9, re-accessed due to an error in application during 9, 10 January 2020
  440. ISBN 978-3-642-55764-4, eBook Packages Springer Book Archive – accessed 10 January 2020 (this source represents a re-application of sourcing due to an error in application of sourcing to the inclusion "spontaneous" during the 1st inclusion made 2020-1-9
    )
  441. Segre, EmilioSpontaneous Fission p.13 "From this we deduce a spontaneous fission decay constant of 2.1 x l03 fissions per gram per second". published Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, 22 November 1950 (this source represents a re-application of sourcing due to an error in application of sourcing to the inclusion " fission" (+) "decay" during the 1st inclusion made 2020-1-9
    )
  442. ^ "The Magnetron". histru.bournemouth.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  443. ^ Bellis, Mary. "The History of Polyester". About.com. Retrieved 23 February 2017.[permanent dead link]
  444. ^ Bookchin, Debbie and Schumacher, Jim. The Virus and the Vaccine. MacMillan 2005
  445. ^ "Espacenet - Bibliographic data". worldwide.espacenet.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
  446. ^ a b Bowman (1995), pp. 9–15.
  447. .
  448. .
  449. .
  450. ^ Aitken (1990), pp. 60–61.
  451. ^ King, George E (2012), Hydraulic fracturing 101 (PDF), Society of Petroleum Engineers, Paper 152596
  452. ^ Smil, pp. 97-98.
  453. , illustrated, Retrieved 27 June 2019
  454. ^ "The Float Process". pilkington.com. Plinkington. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  455. ^ "IBM 350 disk storage unit". IBM. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 25 February 2017.
  456. ^ McCorduck 2004, pp. 123–125, Crevier 1993, pp. 44–46 and Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 17
  457. S2CID 32667559
    .
  458. ^ "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum".
  459. ^ "Who Invented the Transistor?". 4 December 2013.
  460. ^ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". 2 April 2018.
  461. .
  462. . Retrieved 15 August 2015. Elements of the pilot NPL network first operated in 1969
  463. ^ Roberts, Dr. Lawrence G. (November 1978). "The Evolution of Packet Switching" (PDF). IEEE Invited Paper. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2017. In nearly all respects, Davies' original proposal, developed in late 1965, was similar to the actual networks being built today.
  464. ^ "Donald Davies | Internet Hall of Fame". www.internethalloffame.org. Retrieved 20 April 2022. the ARPANET received his network design enthusiastically and the NPL local network became the first two computer networks in the world using the technique.
  465. ^ "The real story of how the Internet became so vulnerable". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2020. Historians credit seminal insights to Welsh scientist Donald W. Davies and American engineer Paul Baran
  466. ^ "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip | the Silicon Engine | Computer History Museum".
  467. ^ "Floppy Disks - CHM Revolution". www.computerhistory.org. Archived from the original on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
  468. ^ "The World's Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science, 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
  469. ^ Nick Taylor. Laser: The Inventor, the Nobel Laureate, and the Thirty-Year Patent War. Simon & Schuster. 2000
  470. ISSN 1558-0857
    . The authors wish to thank a number of colleagues for helpful comments during early discussions of international network protocols, especially R. Metcalfe, R. Scantlebury, D. Walden, and H. Zimmerman; D. Davies and L. Pouzin who constructively commented on the fragmentation and accounting issues; and S. Crocker who commented on the creation and destruction of associations.
  471. . Retrieved 22 April 2020. In the early 1970s Mr Pouzin created an innovative data network that linked locations in France, Italy and Britain. Its simplicity and efficiency pointed the way to a network that could connect not just dozens of machines, but millions of them. It captured the imagination of Dr Cerf and Dr Kahn, who included aspects of its design in the protocols that now power the internet.
  472. ^ "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
  473. PMID 265521
    .
  474. ^ "The VaMoRs Was the World's First Real-Deal Autonomous Car | Web2Carz". Web2Carz.com. 28 February 2017.
  475. ISSN 1059-1028
    . Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  476. ^ "BBC - A History of the World - Object : Prestel badge". BBC. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  477. ^ 4667088, Kramer, Kane N. & Campbell, James S., "Portable data processing and storage system", issued 1987-05-19 
  478. ^ EP 689208  "Method for block oriented addressing" – for block layouts see columns 1 and 2
  479. ^ "SatMagazine". www.satmagazine.com. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  480. ^ "Shinshu Seiki/Suwa Seikosha HC-20". IPSJ Computer Museum. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
  481. ^ "Our Story". 3D Systems. 12 January 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2018.
  482. PMID 16754883
    .
  483. ^ "Eureka moment that led to the discovery of DNA fingerprinting". The Guardian. 24 May 2009. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  484. ^ "On the 20th Birthday of the MP3, An Interview With The "Father" of the MP3, Karlheinz Brandenburg". Internet History Podcast. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  485. Time Magazine. Archived from the original
    on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 17 May 2010. He wove the World Wide Web and created a mass medium for the 21st century. The World Wide Web is Berners-Lee's alone. He designed it. He loosed it on the world. And he more than anyone else has fought to keep it open, nonproprietary and free.
  486. ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Pre-W3C Web and Internet Background". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 21 April 2009.
  487. ^ "1991: Solid State Drive module demonstrated | The Storage Engine | Computer History Museum". www.computerhistory.org.
  488. ^ Markoff, John (3 March 1997). "Fiber-Optic Technology Draws Record Stock Value". The New York Times.
  489. ^ "Podcast". Cambridge Dictionary (Online ed.). Retrieved 21 April 2022.
  490. ^ "Definition of PODCAST". 21 November 2023.
  491. ^ "Podcast Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary". britannica.com.
  492. ^ Inside the secret lab where Amazon is designing the future of reading Archived September 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine The Verge, 2014
  493. .
  494. ^ Edwards, Lin; Phys.org. "IKAROS unfurls first ever solar sail in space". phys.org. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  495. PMID 21163978
    .
  496. .
  497. ^ "Breakthrough of the Year, 2012". Science.
  498. from the original on 22 December 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
  499. ^ Cascone, Sarah (7 May 2021). "Sotheby's Is Selling the First NFT Ever Minted – and Bidding Starts at $100". Artnet News. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  500. ISSN 0099-9660
    . Retrieved 12 December 2021.
  501. .
  502. ^ "Ripples in spacetime: Science's 2016 Breakthrough of the Year". Adiran Cho. AAAS. 22 December 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2016.
  503. ^ "Choose your 2018 Breakthrough of the Year!". Science. AAAS. Retrieved 28 November 2018.

References

External links