Tipu Sultan
Tipu Sultan | |
---|---|
Badshah Nasib-ud-Daulah Mir Fateh Ali Bahadur Tipu | |
Tipu Sultan (Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu; 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799), commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of Mysore",
Tipu Sultan and his father used their French-trained army in alliance with the French in their struggle with the British,
Tipu's conflicts with his neighbours included the
Tipu remained an implacable enemy of the British
In the
Early years
Childhood
Tipu Sultan was born in
Tipu's father, Hyder Ali, was a military officer in service to the Kingdom of Mysore who had become the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 while his mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu an early education in subjects like Urdu, Persian, Arabic, Kannada, beary, Quran, Islamic jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing.[13][16][17][18]
Language
Tipu Sultan's mother tongue was Urdu. The French noted that "Their language is Moorish[Urdu] but they also speak Persian."[19] Moors at the time was a European designation for Urdu: "I have a deep knowledge [je possède à fond] of the common tongue of India, called Moors by the English, and Ourdouzebain by the natives of the land."[20]
Early military service
Early Conflicts
Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French officers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he accompanied his father against the British in the
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Death
When the British
Tipu Sultan was killed at the Hoally (Diddy) Gateway, which was located 300 yards (270 m) from the N.E. Angle of the Srirangapatna Fort.
Administration
Tipu introduced a new calendar, new coinage, and seven new government departments, during his reign, and made military innovations in the use of rocketry.
Mysorean rockets
Dr
Tipu Sultan's father had expanded on Mysore's use of rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets themselves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. The rockets had twin side sharpened blades mounted on them, and when fired en masse, spun and wreaked significant damage against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the use of rockets after Hyder's death, deploying as many as 5,000 rocketeers at a time.[53] The rockets deployed by Tipu during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than those the British East India Company had previously seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[53][10]
British accounts describe the use of the rockets during the third and fourth wars.[54] During the climactic battle at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a magazine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. After Tipu's defeat in the fourth war the British captured a number of the Mysorean rockets. These became influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[10]
In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his father, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 65 cannons. In the year 1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and established massive dockyards at
Army
Due to their perpetual battle engagements, Haidar and Tipu required a disciplined standing army. Thus,
Economy
The peak of
Tipu Sultan laid the foundation for the construction of the Kannambadi dam (present-day Krishna Raja Sagara or KRS dam) on the Kaveri river, as attested by an extant stone plaque bearing his name, but was unable to begin the construction.[61][62] The dam was later built and opened in 1938. It is a major source of drinking water for the people of Mysore and Bangalore.
The Mysore silk industry was first initiated during the reign of Tipu Sultan.[63] He sent an expert to Bengal Subah to study silk cultivation and processing, after which Mysore began developing polyvoltine silk.[8]
The greater prominence of the Channapatna toys can be traced to patronage from Tipu Sultan, the historic ruler of Mysore, though these toys existed before this period historically given as gifts as part of Dusshera celebrations. It is known that he was an ardent admirer of arts, and in particular of woodwork.[64][9]
Road development
Tipu Sultan was considered as pioneer of road construction, especially in Malabar, as part of his campaigns, he connected most of the cities by roads.[65]
Foreign relations
- Mughal Empire
Both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan owed nominal allegiance to the
Immediately after his coronation as Badshah, Tipu Sultan sought the investiture of the Mughal emperor. He earned the title "Nasib-ud-Daula" with the heavy heart of those loyal to Shah Alam II. Tipu was a selfdeclared "
Tipu Sultan was the master of his own diplomacy with foreign nations, in his quest to rid India of the East India Company and to ensure the international strength of France. Like his father before him he fought battles on behalf of foreign nations which were not in the best interests of Shah Alam II.
After Ghulam Qadir had Shah Alam II blinded on 10 August 1788, Tipu Sultan is believed to have broken into tears.[69][page needed]
After the Fall of Seringapatam in 1799, the blind emperor did remorse for Tipu, but maintained his confidence in the Nizam of Hyderabad, who had now made peace with the British.
- Afghanistan
After facing substantial threats from the Marathas, Tipu Sultan began to correspond with Zaman Shah Durrani, the ruler of the Afghan Durrani Empire, so they could defeat the British and Marathas. Initially, Zaman Shah agreed to help Tipu, but the Persian attack on Afghanistan's Western border diverted its forces, and hence no help could be provided to Tipu.
- Ottoman Empire
In 1787, Tipu Sultan sent an embassy to the
However, the Ottomans were themselves in crisis and still recuperating from the devastating
Due to the Ottoman inability to organise a fleet in the Indian Ocean, Tipu Sultan's ambassadors returned home only with gifts from their Ottoman brothers.
Nevertheless, Tipu Sultan's correspondence with the Ottoman Empire and particularly its new Sultan Selim III continued till his final battle in the year 1799.[68]
- Persia and Oman
Like his father before him, Tipu Sultan maintained friendly relations with
- Qing China
Tipu's and Mysore's tryst with silk began in the early 1780s when he received an ambassador from the Qing dynasty-ruled China at his court. The ambassador presented him with a silk cloth. Tipu was said to be enchanted by the item to such an extent that he resolved to introduce its production in his kingdom. He sent a return journey to China, which returned after twelve years.[71]
- France
Both Hyder Ali and Tipu sought an alliance with the French, the only European power still strong enough to challenge the British East India Company in the subcontinent. In 1782, Louis XVI concluded an alliance with the
Napoleon conquered Egypt in an attempt to link with Tipu Sultan.[citation needed] In February 1798, Napoleon wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan appreciating his efforts of resisting the British annexation and plans, but this letter never reached Tipu and was seized by a British spy in Muscat. The idea of a possible Tipu-Napoleon alliance alarmed the British Governor, General Sir Richard Wellesley (also known as Lord Wellesley), so much that he immediately started large scale preparations for a final battle against Tipu Sultan.
Social system
Judicial system
Tipu Sultan appointed judges from both communities for Hindu and Muslim subjects. Qadi for Muslims and Pandit for Hindus in each province. Upper courts also had similar systems.[73]
Moral Administration
Usage of liquor and prostitution were strictly prohibited in his administration.
Polyandry in Kerala was prohibited by Tipu Sultan. He passed a decree for all women to cover their breasts, which was not practised in Kerala in the previous era.[76][77]
Religious policy
On a personal level, Tipu was a devout Muslim, saying his prayers daily and paying special attention to mosques in the area.[78] Regular endowments were made during this period to about 156 Hindu temples,[79] including the famed Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangapatna.[80] Many sources mention the appointment of Hindu officers in Tipu's administration[81] and his land grants and endowments to Hindu temples,[82][83][84] which are cited as evidence for his religious tolerance.
His religious legacy has become a source of considerable controversy in India, with some groups (including Christians
British accounts
Historians such as Brittlebank, Hasan, Chetty, Habib, and Saletare, amongst others, argue that controversial stories of Tipu Sultan's religious persecution of Hindus and Christians are largely derived from the work of early British authors (who were very much against Tipu Sultan's independence and harboured prejudice against the Sultan) such as James Kirkpatrick[92] and Mark Wilks,[93] whom they do not consider to be entirely reliable and likely fabricated.[94] A. S. Chetty argues that Wilks' account in particular cannot be trusted.[95]
Irfan Habib and Mohibbul Hasan argue that these early British authors had a strong vested interest in presenting Tipu Sultan as a tyrant from whom the British had liberated Mysore.[94][96] This assessment is echoed by Brittlebank in her recent work where she writes that Wilks and Kirkpatrick must be used with particular care as both authors had taken part in the wars against Tipu Sultan and were closely connected to the administrations of Lord Cornwallis and Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley.[97]
Relations with Hindus
Tipu Sultan's treasurer was Krishna Rao, Shamaiya Iyengar was his Minister of Post and Police, his brother Ranga Iyengar was also an officer, and Purnaiya held the very important post of "Mir Asaf". Moolchand and Sujan Rai were his chief agents at the Mughal court, and his chief "Peshkar", Suba Rao, was also a Hindu.[81]
The Editor of Mysore Gazette reports of correspondence between his court and temples, and his having donated jewellery and deeded land grants to several temples, which he was compelled to for forming alliances with Hindu rulers. Between 1782 and 1799 Tipu Sultan issued 34 "Sanads" (deeds) of endowment to temples in his domain, while also presenting many of them with gifts of silver and gold plate.[84]
The Srikanteswara Temple in Nanjangud still possesses a jeweled cup presented by the Sultan.
During the
The incumbent Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. About 30 letters written in Kannada, which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the Sringeri Shankaracharya, were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in Mysore. Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at the news of the raid:[81][98]
"People who have sinned against such a holy place are sure to suffer the consequences of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali age in accordance with the verse: "Hasadbhih kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate" (People do [evil] deeds smilingly but suffer the consequences crying)."[99]
He immediately ordered the Asaf of
In light of this and other events, historian B. A. Saletare has described Tipu Sultan as a defender of the Hindu dharma, who also patronised other temples including one at Melkote, for which he issued a Kannada decree that the Shrivaishnava invocatory verses there should be recited in the traditional form.[101] The temple at Melkote still has gold and silver vessels with inscriptions indicating that they were presented by the Sultan. Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale.[101] Tipu Sultan does seem to have repossessed unauthorised grants of land made to Brahmins and temples, but those which had proper sanads (certificates) were not. It was a normal practice for any ruler, Muslim or Hindu, on his accession or on the conquest of new territory.
Persecution of Kodavas outside Mysore
Tipu got Runmust Khan, the Nawab of Kurnool, to launch a surprise attack upon the Kodavas who were besieged by the invading Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Kodavas fled to the woods and concealed themselves in the mountains.[102] Thousands of Kodavas were seized along with the Raja and held captive at Seringapatam.[90]
Mohibbul Hasan, Prof. Sheikh Ali, and other historians cast great doubt on the scale of the deportations and forced conversions in Coorg in particular. Hassan says that it is difficult to estimate the real number of Kodava captured by Tipu.[103]
In a letter to Runmust Khan, Tipu himself stated:[104]
"We proceeded with the utmost speed, and, at once, made prisoners of 40,000 occasion-seeking and sedition-exciting Kodavas, who alarmed at the approach of our victorious army, had slunk into woods, and concealed themselves in lofty mountains, inaccessible even to birds. Then carrying them away from their native country (the native place of sedition) we raised them to the honour of Islam, and incorporated them into our Ahmedy corps." [105]
The coinage system
The coinage of Tipu Sultan is one of the most complex and fascinating series struck in India during the 18th century. Local South India coinage had been struck in the area that became Mysore since ancient times, with the first gold coinage introduced about the 11th century (the elephant pagoda), and other pagodas continuing through the following centuries. These pagoda were always in the South Indian style until the reign of Haidar Ali (1761–1782), who added pagodas with Persian legends, plus a few very rare gold mohurs and silver rupees, always in the name of the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II plus the Arabic letter "ح" as the first letter of his name. His successor, Tipu Sultan, continued to issue pagodas, mohurs and rupees, with legends that were completely new. As for copper, the new large paisa was commenced by Haidar Ali in AH1195, two years before his death, with the elephant on the obverse, the mint on the reverse, and was continued throughout the reign of Tipu Sultan, who added other denominations. Tipu Sultan introduced a set of new Persian names for the various denominations, which appear on all of the gold and silver coins and on some of the copper. They were:
Copper: Qutb "قطب" for the 1/8 paisa (Persian for the pole star) – Akhtar "اختر" for the 1/4 paisa (star) – Bahram "بهرام" for the 1/2 paisa (the planet Mars) – Zohra "زهره" for the paisa (the planet Venus) – either Othmani "عثمانی" for the double-paisa (the third caliph of the Rashidun) or Mushtari "مشتری" (the planet Jupiter).
Silver: Khizri "خضری" for the 1/32 rupee (
Gold: Faruqi "فاروقی" for the pagoda (
, with an average weight of about 10.95g (AH1197-1200), replaced with the four-pagoda of 13.74g with the calendar change to the Mauludi "مولودی" system (AM1215-1219).Coinage dating system
The denomination does not appear on the Hijri dated gold coins, but was added on all the Mauludi dated pieces.
At the beginning of his first year, Tipu Sultan abandoned the Hijri dating system and introduced the Mauludi system (from the Arabic word "walad ", which means "birth "), based on the solar year and the birth year of Muhammad (actually 571 AD, but for some perplexing reason reckoned as 572 by Tipu Sultan for his staff).
From the beginning of his reign, Tipu Sultan added the name of the Indian cyclic year on the large silver and gold coins, including this double-pagoda, together with his regnal year. Each of the names is Persian, though in several examples, the meaning of the names in India was different from the Iranian meaning (not indicated here). According to the Indian meanings, these are the cyclic years: Zaki "زکي" for cyclic 37, which corresponded to his year 1 ( "pure ") – Azâl "أزل" for 38 ( "eternity ", year 2) – Jalal "جَلال" for 39 ( "splendor ", year 3) – Dalv "دَلو" for 40 (the sign of Aquarius, year 4) – Shâ "شاه" for 41 ( "king ", year 5) – Sârâ "سارا" for 42 ( "fragrant ", year 6) – Sarâb "سراب" for 43 ( "mirage ", for year 7) – Shitâ "شتا" for 44 ( "winter ", year 8) – Zabarjad "زبرجد" for 45 ( "topaz ", year 9) – sahar "سَحَر" ( "dawn ", year 10) – Sâher "ساحِر" ( "magician ", year 11).[106]
Assessment and legacy
Assessments of Tipu Sultan have often been passionate and divided. Successive Indian National Congress governments have often celebrated Tipu Sultan's memory and monuments and relics of his rule while the Bharatiya Janata Party has been largely critical. School and college textbooks in India officially recognize him as a "freedom-fighter" along with many other rulers of the 18th century who fought European powers.[107] The original copy of the Constitution of India bears a painting of Tipu Sultan.[108]
In 2017 the 14th Indian president Ram Nath Kovind hailed Tipu Sultan in his address to the Karnataka Assembly on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of the state secretariat Vidhana Soudha saying "Tipu Sultan died a heroic death fighting the British. He was also a pioneer in the development and use of Mysore rockets in warfare. This technology was later adopted by the Europeans."[109]
Tipu Sultan is also admired as a hero in Pakistan. Former Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan has said that he admires Tipu Sultan as a freedom fighter.[110]
Tipu also patronised art forms such as Ganjifa cards, effectively saving this art form.[111] Ganjifa card of Mysore have the GI Tag today.[112]
Sword and tiger
Tipu Sultan had lost his sword in a war with the
Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/babri)[114] of his rule.[115] It is said that Tipu Sultan was hunting in the forest with a French friend. They came face to face with a tiger there. The tiger first pounced on the French soldier and killed him. Tipu's gun did not work, and his dagger fell on the ground as the tiger jumped on him. He reached for the dagger, picked it up, and killed the tiger with it. That earned him the name "the Tiger of Mysore".[citation needed] He even had French engineers build a mechanical tiger for his palace.[116] The device, known as Tipu's Tiger, is on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.[117] Not only did Tipu place relics of tigers around his palace and domain, but also had the emblem of a tiger on his banners and some arms and weapons. Sometimes this tiger was very ornate and had inscriptions within the drawing, alluding to Tipu's faith – Islam.[118] Historian Alexander Beatson reported that "in his palace was found a great variety of curious swords, daggers, fusils, pistols, and blunderbusses; some were of exquisite workmanship, mounted with gold, or silver, and beautifully inlaid and ornamented with tigers' heads and stripes, or with Persian and Arabic verses".[119]
The last sword used by Tipu in his last
In October 2013, another sword owned by Tipu Sultan and decorated with his babri (tiger stripe motif) surfaced and was auctioned by Sotheby's.[122] It was purchased for £98,500[123] by a telephone bidder.
Tipu Sultan Jayanti
In 2015, the Government of Karnataka, under the leadership of then Chief Minister Siddaramaiah from the Congress party, began to celebrate Tipu's birth anniversary as the "Tipu Sultan Jayanti".[124] The Congress regime declared it as an annual event to be celebrated on 20 November.[125] It was officially celebrated in Karnataka initially by the Minority Welfare department, and later by the Kannada & Culture department. However, on 29 July 2019, the next Chief Minister B. S. Yediyurappa, who belongs to the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), ordered the celebrations cancelled, saying: "Legislators from Kodagu had highlighted incidents of violence during Tipu Jayanti."
Objecting against the cancellation of the celebrations, the previous Chief Minister Siddaramaiah said: "BJP has cancelled it because of their hatred towards minorities. It's a big crime. He [Tipu] was a king of Mysore and fought against the British [as] a freedom fighter. It was during his time when the foundation was laid for the Krishna Raja Sagara dam. He also tried to improve industry, agriculture and trade". The previous year, not a single JD(S) leader, including the then chief minister HD Kumaraswamy, attended the event, turning it into a fiasco.[124]
The Lok Sabha Congress leader, Mallikarjun Kharge, also earlier criticized BJP and RSS for their opposition against holding the celebrations, and asked: "When RSS can celebrate Nathuram Godse, can't we celebrate Tipu Sultan?"[126]
In fiction
- He has a role in G. A. Henty's 1896 book The Tiger of Mysore,[127] and is also mentioned in Henty's 1902 At the Point of the Bayonet,[127] which deals with much of the same period.
- In Mysterious Island, Captain Nemois described as Tipu's nephew.
- He was portrayed by Paidi Jairaj in the 1959 Indian historical drama film Tipu Sultan, directed by Jagdish Gautam.[128]
- Bharat Ek Khoj, a 1988 Indian television series based on Jawaharlal Nehru's The Discovery of India which aired on DD National, dedicated an episode to Tipu Sultan with Salim Ghouse portraying the king.
- Tipu's life and adventures were the central theme of a short-running
- The Dreams of Tipu Sultan is a 1997 play written in Kannada by Indian writer Girish Karnad. It follows the last days as well as the historic moments in the life of Tipu, through the eyes of an Indian court historian and a British Oriental scholar.
- Tipu Sultan: The Tiger Lord is a Pakistani television series that broadcast on PTV in 1997, deals with the life of Sultan.
- Naseem Hijazi's novels Muazam Ali and Aur Talvar Ṭūṭ Gaye (And The Sword Broke) describe Tipu's wars.
- Wilkie Collins's novel The Moonstone contains an account of Tipu and the fall of Srirangapatna in the prologue.
- In The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen by Rudolf Erich Raspe, Munchausen vanquishes Tipu near the end of the novel.
- Richard Sharpefights at Seringapatam, later killing Tipu.
- Tipu appears as a "Great Person" in the video games, Sid Meier's Civilization: Revolution and Sid Meier's Civilization IV.
- In his historical Konkani-language novels on the Seringapatam captivity of Konkani Catholics by Indian littérateur V. J. P. Saldanha, Belthangaddicho Balthazar (Balthazar of Belthangady), Devache Krupen (By the Grace of God), Sardarachi Sinol (The sign of the Knights) and Infernachi Daram (The gates of Hell), Tipu is portrayed as "cunning, haughty, hard-hearted, revengeful, yet full of self-control".[131]
Family
Tipu Sultan's paternal family line claims descent from Muhammad, hence why their name's contain Sayyid and Wal Sharif.
Tipu had several wives.[132] One of them, Sindh Sahiba, was quite renowned for her beauty and intelligence and whose grandson was Sahib Sindh Sultan also known as His Highness Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Ahmed Halim-az-Zaman Khan Sultan Sahib. Tipu's family was sent to Calcutta by the British. Many other descendants continue to live in Kolkata and have expressed objection to use of Tipu Sultan's name by political parties for polarising votes.[133][134]
His sons were:
- Shahzada Sayyid Shareef Hyder Ali Khan Sultan (1771 – 30 July 1815)[135]
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Abdul Khaliq Khan Sultan (1782 – 12 September 1806)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhi-ud-din Ali Khan Sultan (1782 – 30 September 1811)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Mu'izz-ud-din Ali Khan Sultan (1783 – 30 March 1818)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Mi'raj-ud-din Ali Khan Sultan (1784? – ?)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Mu'in-ud-din Ali Khan Sultan (1784? – ?)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Yasin Khan Sultan (1784 – 15 March 1849)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Subhan Khan Sultan (1785 – 27 September 1845)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Shukrullah Khan Sultan (1785 – 25 September 1830)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Sarwar-ud-din Khan Sultan (1790 – 20 October 1833)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Nizam-ud-din Khan Sultan (1791 – 20 October 1791)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Muhammad Jamal-ud-din Khan Sultan (1795 – 13 November 1842)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Munir-ud-din Khan Sultan (1795 – 1 December 1837)
- Shahzada Sir Sayyid walShareef Ghulam Muhammad Sultan Sahib, KCSI (March 1795 – 11 August 1872)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Ghulam Ahmad Khan Sultan (1796 – 11 April 1824)
- Shahzada Sayyid walShareef Hashmath Ali Khan Sultan (died at birth)[citation needed]
Image gallery
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A view of the Hoally Gateway, Srirangapatnam, where Tipu Sultan was killed, Seringapatam (Mysore), by Thomas Sydenham (c. 1799)
-
A flintlock blunderbuss, made for Tippu Sultan in Srirangapatnam in 1793-94. Tippu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this gun reflects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[21]
-
Cannon used by Tippu Sultan in the battle of Srirangapatnam 1799
See also
- Muslim warriors
- Mysore invasion of Kerala
- PNS Tippu Sultan
- Tipu Sultan Mosque
- The Sword of Tipu Sultan - an Indian TV series on Tipu Sultan
- Tipu's Tiger
- The Dreams of Tipu Sultan by Girish Karnad
- Mir Ghulam Ali, an official and senior military commander
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These were armed militia who served as police officers, helped in the collection of revenue and often garrisoned small forts . They resembled the sibundi in the Company ' s territories . In Mysore they were divided into the huzur kandachar or those who were in the capital and about the Maharaja, and the taluq kandachar or those in the taluqs, the latter being far more numerous than the former.
- OCLC 813417527.
Since Haidar and Tipu were perpetually engaged in battles, they formed a disciplined standing army . Thus, instead of the local militia called the Kandachar force of agricultural origin which existed in the Mysore army earlier, Haidar and Tipu enrolled to their army forces the able tribal men, Muslims and Rajputs on full time service. In this way, Haidar and Tipu removed the Vokkaligas of the agricultural base from the local militia which took part in wars for centuries and in place of their quit rent, they imposed higher taxes and thus became indirectly responsible for implementation of Ryotwari system. The Ryots were not liberated from the shackles of Kandachar service; the slaves who were with them were enrolled in the army in some places. As a result, the Ryots removed from the military service could not even rely upon slaves for their agricultural activities. Hence these ryots had to endure the greater responsibility of feeding the slaves and of financing their marriages besides paying the higher taxes. So in the plains of Mysore the system of slavery was loosened.
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Cited sources
- Brittlebank, Kate (1999). Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy. Delhi: Oxford University Press. OCLC 246448596.
- Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1005.
- Dalrymple, William (2019). The Anarchy: The Relentless Rise of the East India Company (Hardcover). New York: Bloomsbury publishing. ISBN 978-1-63557-395-4.
- Habib, Irfan, ed. (2002). Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modernization Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan (Anthem South Asian Studies). Anthem Press. ISBN 1-84331-024-4.
- Hasan, Mohibbul (2005), History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar Books, ISBN 978-81-87879-57-2
- Moienuddin, Mohammad (2000). Sunset at Srirangapatam: After the Death of Tipu Sultan. London: Sangam Books. OCLC 48995204.
- Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011). Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850. ISBN 978-1-139-49889-0.
- Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvati's Children: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
- Roy, Kaushik (2011). War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-79087-4.
- Sastri, K.N.V. (1943). Moral Laws under Tipu Sultan. Indian History Congress. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
- Sen, Sailendra Nath (1995). Anglo-Maratha Relations, 1785-96. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 9788171547890.
- Wenger, Estefania (March 2017). Tipu Sultan: A Biography. Vij Books India Private Limited. ISBN 9789386367440.
Further reading
- Balakrishna, Sandeep, Tipu Sultan, The Tyrant of Mysore, Rare Publications
- Sen, Surendra Nath (1930), Studies in Indian History, University of Calcutta, OCLC 578119748
- Subramanian, K. R. (1928), The Maratha Rajas of Tanjore, self-published, OCLC 249773661
- William, Logan (1887), Malabar Manual, Asian Educational Services, ISBN 978-81-206-0446-9
- Grose, John Henry; Charmichael (1777), A Voyage to the East Indies
- Thompson, Rev. E. W. (1990) [1923]. The last siege of Seringapatam. Mysore City: Wesleyan Mission. ISBN 978-8120606029.
- Agha, Shamsu. Tipu Sultan", "Mirza Ghalib in London";, "Flight Delayed", Paperback, ISBN 0-901974-42-0
- Ali, B Sheik. Tipu Sultan, Nyasanal Buk Trast
- Amjad, Sayyid. 'Ali Ashahri, Savanih Tipu Sultan, Himaliyah Buk Ha®us
- Banglori, Mahmud Khan Mahmud. Sahifah-yi Tipu Sultan, Himālayah Pablishing Hā'ūs,
- Bhagwan, Gidwami S (1976). The Sword of Tipu Sultan: a historical novel about the life and legend of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC 173807200. A fictionalised account of Tipu's life.
- Buddle, Anne. Tigers Round the Throne, Zamana Gallery, ISBN 1-869933-02-8
- Campbell, Richard Hamilton. Tippoo Sultan: The fall of Srirangapattana and the restoration of the Hindu raj, Govt. Press
- Chinnian, P. Tipu Sultan the Great, Siva Publications
- Hashimi, Sajjad. Tipu Sultan, Publisher: Maktabah-yi Urdu Da®ijast
- Home, Robert. Select Views in Mysore: The Country of Tipu Sultan from Drawings Taken on the Spot by Mr. Home, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-1512-3
- Kareem, C.K (1973). Kerala Under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. Kerala History Association: distributors, Paico Pub. House.
- V.M. Korath, P. Parameswaran, Ravi Varma, Nandagopal R Menon, S.R. Goel & P.C.N. Raja: Tipu Sultan: Villain or hero? : an anthology. (1993). ISBN 9788185990088
- Mohibbul Hasan. Tipu Sultan's Mission to Constantinople, Aakar Books, ISBN 81-87879-56-4
- Pande, B. N. Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evaluation of their religious policies (IOS series), Institute of Objective Studies
- Sil, Narasingha P. "Tipu Sultan: A Re-Vision," Calcutta Historical Journal' (2008) 28#1 pp 1–23. historiography
- Strandberg, Samuel. Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of Mysore: or, to fight against the odds, AB Samuel Travel, ISBN 91-630-7333-1
- Taylor, George. Coins of Tipu Sultan, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0503-9
- Wigington, Robin. Firearms of Tipu Sultan, 1783–99, J. Taylor Book Ventures, ISBN 1-871224-13-6
- Ashfaq Ahmed Mathur – "SALTANATH-E-KHUDADAT" and a book by Allama Iqbal ahmed (RH) "Daana e Raaz Diyaar e Dakan mein"
External links
- Media related to Tipu Sultan at Wikimedia Commons
- The Tiger of Mysore – Dramatised account of the British campaign against Tipu Sultan by G. A. Henty, from Project Gutenberg
- Illuminated Qurʾān from the library of Tippoo Ṣāḥib, Cambridge University Digital Library
- UK Family Finds Tipu Sultan's Gun, Sword In Attic
- Tipu's Legacy.