Tobacco smoking
Part of a series on |
Tobacco |
---|
Part of a series on |
Smoking |
---|
Tobacco smoking is the practice of burning
Smoking is the most common method of consuming tobacco, and tobacco is the most common substance smoked. The agricultural product is often mixed with additives
German scientists identified a link between smoking and
Many smokers begin during adolescence or early adulthood.
History
Use in ancient cultures
Smoking's history dates back to as early as 5000–3000 BC, when the agricultural product began to be cultivated in Mesoamerica and South America; consumption later evolved into burning the plant substance either by accident or with intent of exploring other means of consumption.
Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it in ceremonial pipes, either in sacred ceremonies or to seal bargains.[24] Adults as well as children enjoyed the practice.[25] It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to heaven.[26]
Apart from smoking, tobacco had uses as medicine. As a pain killer it was used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a
Popularization
In 1612, six years after the settlement of
Frenchman Jean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to France in 1560, and tobacco then spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils".[2] Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that was originally used as a form of medicine.[30] Tobacco was introduced around 1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day Gambia and Senegal. At the same time, caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the areas around Timbuktu, and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s.
Soon after its introduction to the Old World, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders.
Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634, the
By the mid-17th century most major civilizations had been introduced to tobacco smoking and in many cases had already assimilated it into the native culture, despite some continued attempts upon the parts of rulers to eliminate the practice with penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product and plant, followed the major trade routes to major ports and markets, and then on into the hinterlands. The English language term smoking appears to have entered currency in the late 18th century, before which less abbreviated descriptions of the practice such as drinking smoke were also in use.[2]
Growth in the US remained stable until the American Civil War in 1860s, when the primary agricultural workforce shifted from
Social attitudes and public health
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (March 2024) |
In 1912 and 1932 in Germany, anti-smoking groups, often associated with anti-liquor groups,[35] first published advocacy against the consumption of tobacco in the journal Der Tabakgegner (The Tobacco Opponent). In 1929, Fritz Lickint of Dresden, Germany, published a paper containing formal statistical evidence of a lung cancer–tobacco link. During the Great Depression Adolf Hitler condemned his earlier smoking habit as a waste of money,[36] and later with stronger assertions. This movement was further strengthened with Nazi reproductive policy as women who smoked were viewed as unsuitable to be wives and mothers in a German family.[37] In the 20th century, smoking was common. There were social events like the smoke night which promoted the habit.
The
In 1950,
In 1954, the British Doctors Study, a prospective study of some 40 thousand doctors for about 2.5 years, confirmed the suggestion, based on which the government issued advice that smoking and lung cancer rates were related.[11] In January 1964, the United States Surgeon General's Report on Smoking and Health likewise began suggesting the relationship between smoking and cancer.[42]
As scientific evidence mounted in the 1980s, tobacco companies claimed contributory negligence as the adverse health effects were previously unknown or lacked substantial credibility. Health authorities sided with these claims up until 1998, from which they reversed their position. The Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, originally between the four largest US tobacco companies and the attorneys general of 46 states, restricted certain types of tobacco advertisement and required payments for health compensation; which later amounted to the largest civil settlement in United States history.[43]
Social campaigns have been instituted in many places to discourage smoking, such as Canada's National Non-Smoking Week.
From 1965 to 2006, rates of smoking in the United States declined from 42% to 20.8%.
Consumption
Methods
Common methods of consuming tobacco include the following:
- Beedi
- Beedis are thin South Asian cigarettes filled with tobacco flakes and wrapped in a tendu leaf tied with a string at one end. They produce higher levels of carbon monoxide, nicotine, and tar than cigarettes typical in the United States.[47][48]
- Cigars
- Cigars are tightly rolled bundles of dried and fermented tobacco which are ignited so that smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth. They are generally not inhaled because of the high alkalinity of the smoke, which can quickly become irritating to the trachea and lungs. The prevalence of cigar smoking varies depending on location, historical period, and population surveyed, and prevalence estimates vary somewhat depending on the survey method. The United States is the top consuming country by far, followed by Germany and the United Kingdom; the US and Western Europe account for about 75% of cigar sales worldwide.[49] As of 2005 it is estimated that 4.3% of men and 0.3% of women smoke cigars in the US.[50]
- Cigarettes
- Cigarettes, French for "small cigar", are a product consumed through smoking and manufactured out of cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco, often combined with other additives, which are then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped cylinder.[4] Cigarettes are ignited and inhaled, usually through a cellulose acetate filter, into the mouth and lungs.
- Hookah
- Hookah are a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking. Originally from India, the hookah was a symbol of pride and honor for the landlords, kings and other such high class people. Now, the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be used for smoking herbal fruits, tobacco, or cannabis.
- Kretek
- Kretek are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves and a flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs. The quality and variety of tobacco play an important role in kretek production, from which kretek can contain more than 30 types of tobacco. Minced dried clove buds weighing about one-third of the tobacco blend are added to add flavoring. In 2004 the United States prohibited cigarettes from having a "characterizing flavor" of certain ingredients other than tobacco and menthol, thereby removing kretek from being classified as cigarettes.[51]
- Pipe smoking
- Pipe smoking is done with a tobacco pipe, typically consisting of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited.
- Roll-your-own
- Roll-your-own or hand-rolled cigarettes, often called "rollies", "cigi" or "Roll-ups", are very popular particularly in European countries and the UK. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers, and filters all bought separately. They are usually much cheaper than ready-made cigarettes and small contraptions can be bought making the process easier.
- Vaporizer
- A vaporizer is a device used to sublimate the active ingredients of plant material. Rather than burning the herb, which produces potentially irritating, toxic, or carcinogenicby-products; a vaporizer heats the material in a partial vacuum so that the active compounds contained in the plant boil off into a vapor. This method is often preferable when medically administering the smoke substance, as opposed to directly pyrolyzing the plant material.
Physiology
The active substances in tobacco, especially cigarettes, are administered by burning the leaves and inhaling the vaporized gas that results. This quickly and effectively delivers substances into the bloodstream by
The absorbed
When tobacco is smoked, most of the nicotine is pyrolyzed. However, a dose sufficient to cause mild somatic dependency and mild to strong psychological dependency remains. There is also a formation of
Demographics
As of 2000, smoking was practiced by around 1.22 billion people. At current rates of 'smoker replacement' and market growth, this may reach around 1.9 billion in 2025.[60]
Smoking may be up to five times more prevalent among men than women in some communities,[60] although the gender gap usually declines with younger age.[15][16] In some developed countries smoking rates for men have peaked and begun to decline, while for women they continue to climb.[61]
As of 2002, about twenty percent of young teenagers (13–15) smoked worldwide. 80,000 to 100,000 children begin smoking every day, roughly half of whom live in Asia. Half of those who begin smoking in
The
The WHO in 2004 projected 58.8 million deaths to occur globally,[64] from which 5.4 million are tobacco-attributed,[65] and 4.9 million as of 2007.[66] As of 2002, 70% of the deaths are in developing countries.[66] As of 2017, smoking causes one in ten deaths worldwide, with half of those deaths in the US, China, India and Russia.[67]
Psychology
Takeup
Most smokers begin smoking during adolescence or early adulthood. Some studies also show that smoking can also be linked to various mental health complications.[69] Smoking has elements of risk-taking and rebellion, which often appeal to young people. [citation needed] The presence of peers that smoke and media featuring high-status models smoking may also encourage smoking. Because teenagers are influenced more by their peers than by adults [dubious ], attempts by parents, schools, and health professionals at preventing people from trying cigarettes are often unsuccessful.[70][71]
Children of smoking parents are more likely to smoke than children with non-smoking parents. Children of parents who smoke are less likely to quit smoking.[18] One study found that parental smoking cessation was associated with less adolescent smoking, except when the other parent currently smoked.[72] A current study tested the relation of adolescent smoking to rules regulating where adults are allowed to smoke in the home. Results showed that restrictive home smoking policies were associated with lower likelihood of trying smoking for both middle and high school students.[73]
Behavioural research generally indicates that teenagers begin their smoking habits due to peer pressure, and cultural influence portrayed by friends. However, one study found that direct pressure to smoke cigarettes played a less significant part in adolescent smoking, with
Psychologist Hans Eysenck (who later was questioned for nonplausible results
Persistence
The reasons given by some smokers for this activity have been categorized as addictive smoking, pleasure from smoking, tension reduction/relaxation, social smoking, stimulation, habit/automatism, and handling. There are gender differences in how much each of these reasons contribute, with females more likely than males to cite tension reduction/relaxation, stimulation and social smoking.[82]
Some smokers argue that the depressant effect of smoking allows them to calm their nerves, often allowing for increased concentration. However, according to the Imperial College London, "Nicotine seems to provide both a stimulant and a depressant effect, and it is likely that the effect it has at any time is determined by the mood of the user, the environment and the circumstances of use. Studies have suggested that low doses have a depressant effect, while higher doses have stimulant effect."[83]
Patterns
A number of studies have established that cigarette sales and smoking follow distinct time-related patterns. For example, cigarette sales in the United States of America have been shown to follow a strongly seasonal pattern, with the high months being the months of summer, and the low months being the winter months.[84]
Similarly, smoking has been shown to follow distinct circadian patterns during the waking day—with the high point usually occurring shortly after waking in the morning, and shortly before going to sleep at night.[85]
Effects
Health
Tobacco smoking is the
Tobacco use leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for
Tobacco smoke is a complex mixture of over 7,000
The World Health Organization estimates that tobacco caused 8 million deaths in 2004[17] and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.[115] Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide."[116] Although 70% of smokers state their intention to quit only 3–5% are actually successful in doing so.[117]
The probabilities of death from lung cancer before age 75 in the United Kingdom are 0.2% for men who never smoked (0.4% for women), 5.5% for male former smokers (2.6% in women), 15.9% for current male smokers (9.5% for women) and 24.4% for male "heavy smokers" defined as smoking more than 25 cigarettes per day (18.5% for women).[118] Tobacco smoke can combine with other carcinogens present within the environment in order to produce elevated degrees of lung cancer.
The risk of lung cancer decreases almost from the first day someone quits smoking and it drops by 50% after 10 years of smoking cessation.[17] Healthy cells that have escaped mutations grow and replace the damaged ones in the lungs. In the research dated December 2019, 40% of cells in former smokers looked like those of people who had never smoked.[119]
Rates of smoking have generally leveled-off or declined in the developed world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in adults.[120] In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.[121]
Smoking alters the transcriptome of the lung parenchyma; the expression levels of a panel of seven genes (KMO, CD1A, SPINK5, TREM2, CYBB, DNASE2B, FGG) are increased in the lung tissue of smokers.[122]
Passive smoking is the inhalation of tobacco smoke by individuals who are not actively smoking. This smoke is known as second-hand smoke (SHS) or environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) when the burning end is present, and third-hand smoke after the burning end has been extinguished. Because of its negative implications, exposure to SHS has played a central role in the regulation of tobacco products. Six hundred thousand deaths were attributed to SHS in 2004. It also has been known to produce skin conditions such as freckles and dryness.[123]
In 2015, a meta-analysis found that smokers were at greater risk of developing
Economic
In countries where there is a
By contrast, some non-scientific studies, including one conducted by Philip Morris in the Czech Republic called Public Finance Balance of Smoking in the Czech Republic[133] and another by the Cato Institute,[134] support the opposite position. Philip Morris has explicitly apologised for the former study, saying: "The funding and public release of this study which, among other things, detailed purported cost savings to the Czech Republic due to premature deaths of smokers, exhibited terrible judgment as well as a complete and unacceptable disregard of basic human values. For one of our tobacco companies to commission this study was not just a terrible mistake, it was wrong. All of us at Philip Morris, no matter where we work, are extremely sorry for this. No one benefits from the very real, serious and significant diseases caused by smoking."[133]
Between 1970 and 1995, per-capita cigarette consumption in poorer developing countries increased by 67 percent, while it dropped by 10 percent in the richer developed world. Eighty percent of smokers now live in less developed countries. By 2030, the World Health Organization (WHO) forecasts that 10 million people a year will die of smoking-related illness, making it the single biggest cause of death worldwide, with the largest increase to be among women. WHO forecasts the 21st century's death rate from smoking to be ten times the 20th century's rate ("Washingtonian" magazine, December 2007).
The tobacco industry is known to be one of the largest global enterprises in the world. The six biggest tobacco companies made a combined profit of $35.1 billion (Jha et al., 2014) in 2010.[135]
Social
Famous smokers of the past used cigarettes or pipes as part of their image, such as
The problem of smoking at home is particularly difficult for women in many cultures (especially Arab cultures), where it may not be acceptable for a woman to ask her husband not to smoke at home or in the presence of her children. Studies have shown that pollution levels for smoking areas indoors are higher than levels found on busy roadways, in closed motor garages, and during fire storms.[clarification needed] Furthermore, smoke can spread from one room to another, even if doors to the smoking area are closed.[136]
The ceremonial smoking of tobacco, and praying with a
Public policy
On 27 February 2005 the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, took effect. The FCTC is the world's first public health treaty. Countries that sign on as parties agree to a set of common goals, minimum standards for tobacco control policy, and to cooperate in dealing with cross-border challenges such as cigarette smuggling. Currently the WHO declares that 4 billion people will be covered by the treaty, which includes 168 signatories.[140] Among other steps, signatories are to put together legislation that will eliminate secondhand smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.
Taxation
Part of a series on |
Taxation |
---|
An aspect of fiscal policy |
Many governments have introduced
The structure of tobacco excise taxes varies considerably across countries, with lower income countries more likely to rely more on ad valorem excises and higher income countries more likely to rely more on specific excise taxes, while many countries at all income levels use a mix of specific and ad valorem excises.
Tobacco excise tax systems are quite complex in several countries, where different tax rates are applied based on prices, product characteristics such as presence/absence of a filter or length, packaging, weight, tobacco content, and/or production or sales volume. These complex systems are difficult to administer, create opportunities for tax avoidance, and are less effective from a public health perspective.
Globally, cigarette excise taxes account for less than 45 percent of cigarette prices, on average, while all taxes applied to cigarettes account for just over half of half of price. Higher income countries levy higher taxes on tobacco products and these taxes account for a greater share of price, with both the absolute tax and share of price accounted for by tax falling as country incomes fall.
In 2002, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention said that each pack of cigarettes[quantify] sold in the United States costs the nation more than $7 in medical care and lost productivity,[128] around $3400 per year per smoker. Another study by a team of health economists finds the combined price paid by their families and society is about $41 per pack of cigarettes.[142]
Substantial scientific evidence shows that higher cigarette prices result in lower overall cigarette consumption. Most studies indicate that a 10% increase in price will reduce overall cigarette consumption by 3% to 5%. Youth, minorities, and low-income smokers are two to three times more likely to quit or smoke less than other smokers in response to price increases.
Many nations have implemented some form of tobacco taxation. As of 1997, Denmark had the highest cigarette tax burden of $4.02 per pack. Taiwan only had a tax burden of $0.62 per pack. The federal government of the United States charges $1.01 per pack.[145]
Cigarette taxes vary widely from state to state in the United States. For example, Missouri has a cigarette tax of only 17 cents per pack, the nation's lowest, while New York has the highest cigarette tax in the U.S.: $4.35 per pack. In Alabama, Illinois, Missouri, New York City, Tennessee, and Virginia, counties and cities may impose an additional limited tax on the price of cigarettes.[146] Sales taxes are also levied on tobacco products in most jurisdictions.
In the United Kingdom, as of April 2023,[update] a packet of 20 cigarettes has a tax added of 16.5% of the retail price plus £5.89.[147] The UK has a significant black market for tobacco, and it has been estimated by the tobacco industry that 27% of cigarette and 68% of handrolling tobacco consumption is non-UK duty paid (NUKDP).[148]
In Australia total taxes account for 62.5% of the final price of a packet of cigarettes (2011 figures). These taxes include federal excise or customs duty and
Restrictions
In June 1967, the US Federal Communications Commission ruled that programmes broadcast on a television station which discussed smoking and health were insufficient to offset the effects of paid advertisements that were broadcast for five to ten minutes each day. In April 1970, the US Congress passed the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act banning the advertising of cigarettes on television and radio starting on 2 January 1971.[150]
The Tobacco Advertising Prohibition Act 1992 expressly prohibited almost all forms of Tobacco advertising in Australia, including the sponsorship of sporting or other cultural events by cigarette brands.
All tobacco advertising and sponsorship on television has been banned within the European Union since 1991 under the Television Without Frontiers Directive (1989).[151] This ban was extended by the Tobacco Advertising Directive, which took effect in July 2005 to cover other forms of media such as the internet, print media, and radio. The directive does not include advertising in cinemas and on billboards or using merchandising – or tobacco sponsorship of cultural and sporting events which are purely local, with participants coming from only one Member State[152] as these fall outside the jurisdiction of the European Commission. However, most member states have transposed the directive with national laws that are wider in scope than the directive and cover local advertising. A 2008 European Commission report concluded that the directive had been successfully transposed into national law in all EU member states, and that these laws were well implemented.[153]
Some countries also impose legal requirements on the packaging of tobacco products. For example, in the countries of the European Union, Turkey, Australia[154] and South Africa, cigarette packs must be prominently labeled with the health risks associated with smoking.[155] Canada, Australia, Thailand, Iceland and Brazil have also imposed labels upon cigarette packs warning smokers of the effects, and they include graphic images of the potential health effects of smoking. Cards are also inserted into cigarette packs in Canada. There are sixteen of them, and only one comes in a pack. They explain different methods of quitting smoking. Also, in the United Kingdom, there have been a number of graphic NHS advertisements, one showing a cigarette filled with fatty deposits, as if the cigarette is symbolizing the artery of a smoker.
Some countries have also banned advertisement at point of sale. United Kingdom and Ireland have limited the advertisement of tobacco at retailers.[156][157] This includes storing of cigarettes behind a covered shelf not visible to the public. They do however allow some limited advertising at retailers. Norway has a complete ban of point of sale advertising.[158] This includes smoking products and accessories. Implementing these policies can be challenging, all of these countries experienced resistance and challenges from the tobacco industry.[159][160][161] The World Health Organisation recommends the complete ban of all types of advertisement or product placement, including at vending machines, at airports and on internet shops selling tobacco.[162] The evidence is as yet unclear as to the effect of such bans.
Many countries have a
Several countries such as Ireland, Latvia, Estonia, the Netherlands, Finland, Norway, Canada, Australia, Sweden, Portugal, Singapore, Italy, Indonesia, India, Lithuania, Chile, Spain, Iceland, United Kingdom, Slovenia, Turkey and Malta have legislated against smoking in public places, often including bars and restaurants. Restaurateurs have been permitted in some jurisdictions to build designated smoking areas (or to prohibit smoking). In the United States, many states prohibit smoking in restaurants, and some also prohibit smoking in bars. In provinces of Canada, smoking is illegal in indoor workplaces and public places, including bars and restaurants. As of 31 March 2008 Canada has introduced a smoke-free law in all public places, as well as within 10 metres of an entrance to any public place. In Australia, smoke-free laws vary from state to state. In New Zealand and Brazil, smoking is restricted in enclosed public places including bars, restaurants and pubs. Hong Kong restricted smoking on 1 January 2007 in the workplace, public spaces such as restaurants, karaoke rooms, buildings, and public parks (bars which do not admit minors were exempt until 2009). In Romania smoking is illegal in trains, metro stations, public institutions (except where designated, usually outside) and public transport. In Germany, in addition to smoking bans in public buildings and transport, an anti-smoking ordinance for bars and restaurants was implemented in late 2007. A study by the University of Hamburg (Ahlfeldt and Maennig 2010) demonstrates that the smoking ban had, if any, only short run effects on bar and restaurant revenues. In the medium and long run no negative effect was measurable. The results suggest either that the consumption in bars and restaurants is not affected by smoking bans in the long run or that negative revenue effects by smokers are compensated by increasing revenues through non-smokers.[164]
Ignition safety
An indirect public health problem posed by cigarettes is that of accidental fires, usually linked with consumption of alcohol. Enhanced combustion using nitrates was traditionally used but cigarette manufacturers have been silent on this subject claiming at first that a safe cigarette was technically impossible, then that it could only be achieved by modifying the paper. Roll your own cigarettes contain no additives and are fire safe. Numerous
Health warnings
Individual cigarettes in Canada now carry warnings such as "poison in every puff" and "cigarettes cause impotence" in what the government says is an effort to make it "virtually impossible to avoid health warnings altogether".[168]
Gateway drug theory
The relationship between tobacco and other drug use has been well-established, however the nature of this association remains unclear. The two main theories are the
Cessation
Quitting smoking often involves advice from physicians or social workers,[18] cold turkey, nicotine replacement therapy, contingent vouchers,[172] antidepressants, vaping,[173] hypnosis, self-help (mindfulness meditation),[174] and support groups.
In the United States, about 70% of smokers would like to quit smoking, and 50% report having made an attempt to do so in the past year.[175] Without support, 1% of smokers will successfully quit smoking each year. Physician advice to quit smoking increases the rate to 3% per year.[176] Adding first‐line smoking cessation medications (and some behavioral help), increased quit rates to around 20% of smokers in a year.[177] For cessation of smoking, public participation in health campaigns are important. In Nepal, cardiologist Om Murti Anil has launched smokers are not selfish campaign on the occasion of valentines day. He is using social media to motivate people to sacrifice their smoking habits as gift to their loved ones .[178]
See also
- Cannabis smoking
- Cigarette smoking among college students
- Cigarette smoking for weight loss
- Electronic cigarette
- Herbal cigarette
- List of cigarette smoke carcinogens
- Snuff (tobacco)
- Smoker's paradox
- Tobacco advertising
- Tobacco control
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-8021-3960-3. Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-307-39491-0.
- ISBN 978-1-903734-98-8.
- ^ a b c Wigand, Jeffrey S. (July 2006). "ADDITIVES, CIGARETTE DESIGN and TOBACCO PRODUCT REGULATION" (PDF). Mt. Pleasant, MI 48804: Jeffrey Wigand. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ a b Gilman & Xun 2004, p. 318
- ^ S2CID 4842374.
- ^ S2CID 22962937.
- ^ Gilman & Xun 2004, pp. 320–321
- PMID 18834313.
- ^ a b c Proctor 2000, p. 228
- ^ PMID 15217868.
- ^ a b VJ Rock, MPH, A Malarcher, JW Kahende, K Asman, MSPH, C Husten, MD, R Caraballo (9 November 2007). "Cigarette Smoking Among Adults --- United States, 2006". United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 16 August 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
In 2006, an estimated 20.8% (45.3 million) of U.S. adults[...]
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d "WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics". World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 28 May 2002. Archived from the original on 8 November 2009. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
- S2CID 12450625.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ a b The World Health Organization, and the Institute for Global Tobacco Control, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health (2001). "Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century" (PDF). World Health Organization. pp. 5–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2003. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b "Surgeon General's Report—Women and Smoking". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2001. p. 47. Archived from the original on 10 July 2009. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
- ^ a b c d "Tobacco". www.who.int. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
- ^ PMID 28749122.
- S2CID 37513171.
- ISBN 978-0-300-05790-4. Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-8061-1511-5.
- PMID 21893367.
- JSTOR 2843888
- ISBN 978-0-405-02853-3. Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ^ Diéreville; Webster, John Clarence; Webster, Alice de Kessler Lusk (1933). "Relation of the voyage to Port Royal in Acadia or New France". The Champlain Society.
They smoke with excessive eagerness […] men, women, girls and boys, all find their keenest pleasure in this way
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Gottsegen, Jack Jacob (1940). "Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States". Pitman Publishing Company: 107. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009>
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-0-520-00072-8. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
Early Uses of California Plants.
- ^ Jordan, Ervin L. Jr. "Jamestown, Virginia, 1607–1907: An Overview". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on 17 October 2002. Retrieved 22 February 2009.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-0-8078-4224-9. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
Tobacco & Slaves: The Development of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake.
- ^ Gilman & Xun 2004, p. 38
- ^ Gilman & Xun 2004, pp. 92–99
- ^ Gilman & Xun 2004, pp. 15–16
- ^ King James I of England (16 April 2002) [1604]. "A Counterblaste to Tobacco". University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ISBN 978-1-59213-480-9. Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ^ Proctor 2000, p. 178
- ^ Proctor 2000, p. 219
- ^ Proctor 2000, p. 187
- ^ a b Proctor 2000, p. 245
- archive.is.
- PMID 14772469.
- ^ "CNN Interactive". Cnn.com. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
- ^ "The Reports of the Surgeon General: The 1964 Report on Smoking and Health". Profiles in Science. United States National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 20 January 2016. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
- Wall Street Journal.
- ISBN 978-0-7190-5257-6. Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ^ Gilman & Xun 2004, pp. 46–57
- ^ a b MPOWER 2008, pp. 267–288
- ^ "Bidi Use Among Urban Youth – Massachusetts, March–April 1999". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 17 September 1999. Archived from the original on 11 February 2009. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
- PMID 9862656.
- )
- from the original on 26 September 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
- ^ "A bill to protect the public health by providing the Food and Drug Administration with certain authority to regulate tobacco products. (Summary)" (Press release). Library of Congress. 20 May 2004. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2007.
- PMID 589225.
- S2CID 4208650.
- S2CID 5923174.
- S2CID 42215860.
- S2CID 4338516.
- S2CID 45096870.
- S2CID 25866206.
- S2CID 43544025.
- ^ a b Guindon, G. Emmanuel; Boisclair, David (2003). "Past, current and future trends in tobacco use" (PDF). Washington DC: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank: 13–16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Peto, Richard; Lopez, Alan D; Boreham, Jillian; Thun, Michael (2006). "Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950–2000: indirect estimates from national vital statistics" (PDF). Oxford University Press: 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2005. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Tobaccofreekids.org/problem/tol-s
- from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2017.
- ^ GBD 2008, p. 8
- ^ GBD 2008, p. 23
- ^ a b "WHO/WPRO-Tobacco Fact sheet". World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific. 29 May 2007. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 1 January 2009.
- ^ "Smoking causes one in 10 deaths worldwide, study shows". BBC News. 6 April 2017. Archived from the original on 10 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-393-32861-5.
- PMID 8633740.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-684-84409-1. Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- PMID 12177249.
- S2CID 8749779.
- PMID 2378284.
- ^ Bharatula, Arun (2016). Review: Tobacco outlet density. Melbourne.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)[permanent dead link] - .
- .
- PMID 30791726.
- ^ "King's College London enquiry into publications authored by Professor Hans Eysenck with Professor Ronald Grossarth-Maticek" (PDF). October 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 November 2022. Retrieved 13 January 2020.
- ^ Nigel Hawkes (2019), Works by eminent psychologist who doubted smoking caused cancer are "unsafe," finds inquiry Archived 4 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine
- ISBN 978-0-7658-0639-0.
- PMID 14616184.
- ^ "Nicotine". Imperial College London. Archived from the original on 14 July 2009. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - PMID 12612375.
- PMID 17295586.
- ^ from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
- ^ "ASH > Action on Smoking & Health". www.ash.org. 2 August 2012. Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
- ISBN 978-1-4160-2973-1.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
- S2CID 207276270.
- S2CID 207215548.
- ^ S2CID 19615031.
- S2CID 14090263.
- ^ from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
- ^ NCBI.
- ^ Inflamm Bowel Dis. May 2009, P. Seksik, I Nion-Larmurier
- S2CID 322153.
- ^ S2CID 58560832.
- ^ Dreyer, L et al. (1997) Tobacco Smoking. APMIS Inc.
- (PDF) from the original on 16 March 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2021.
- S2CID 11598500.
- PMID 18403632.
- PMID 21802474.
- S2CID 8812192.
- PMID 11971987.
- PMID 19546159.
- PMID 21602187.
- from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
- PMID 19477295.
- PMID 17317274.
- S2CID 210335103.
- S2CID 155103502.
- (PDF) from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
- ^ PMID 30451904.
- ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008
- ^ "Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction Archived 1 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
- ^ PMID 9321534. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 20 April 2018.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - PMID 10926586.
- from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
- ^ "Cigarette Smoking Among Adults --- United States, 2006". Archived from the original on 16 August 2019. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ "WHO Western Pacific | World Health Organization". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 8 November 2009.
- PMID 31506599.
- ^ Worldwide burden of disease from exposure to second-hand smoke: a retrospective analysis of data from 192 countries Archived 29 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine 26 November 2010
- PMID 26249303.
- from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
- PMID 28680589.
- PMID 30584159.
- ^ a b "Cigarettes Cost U.S. $7 Per Pack Sold, Study Says". The New York Times. 12 April 2002. Archived from the original on 13 February 2008. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ a b "USATODAY.com – Study: Cigarettes cost families, society $41 per pack". USA Today. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ Armour, Brian S.; Pitts, M. Melinda (2007). "Smoking: Taxing Health and Social Security" (PDF). www.frbatlanta.org. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
- ^ "Even One Is Too Much: The Economic Consequences of Being a Smoker, Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, January 2013" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2013.
- ^ "Costs and Expenditures". Smoking and Tobacco. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 20 January 2013. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/fast_facts/ Archived 25 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "Public Finance Balance of Smoking in the Czech Republic". Archived from the original on 19 July 2006.
- ^ "Snuff the Facts". Archived from the original on 20 December 2006.
- ^ "Global Effects of Smoking, of Quitting, and of Taxing Tobacco" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 November 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
- ^ Mostafa RM. Dilemma of women's passive smoking. Ann Thorac Med [serial online] 2011 [cited 2011 Mar 29];6:55-6. Available from: http://www.thoracicmedicine.org/text.asp?2011/6/2/55/78410 Archived 2 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (2009). "Obey the Word of Wisdom". Basic Beliefs – The Commandments. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2009.
- ^ "Why is smoking not strictly forbidden in Islam?". Archived from the original on 3 May 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
- ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.
- ^ "WHO | Updated status of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control". 17 November 2004. Archived from the original on 17 November 2004. Retrieved 12 December 2021.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.who.int. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "26, 2004-smoking-costs_x.htm Study: Cigarettes cost families, society $41 per pack". USA Today.
- ^ "Reducing Tobacco Use". Archived from the original on 21 February 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- PMID 15791017.
- ^ "TTB – Tax Audit Division – Tax and Fee Rates". Archived from the original on 26 February 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ Helen C. Alvarez (28 March 2014). "You and Cigarettes". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ "Tax on shopping and services". GOV.UK. Archived from the original on 24 November 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ "Tobacco Smuggling & Crossborder Shopping " Tobacco Manufacturers' Association". Archived from the original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ Scollo, Michelle (2008). "13.2 Tobacco taxes in Australia" Archived 24 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Tobacco in Australia. Cancer Council Victoria. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
- ^ "History of Tobacco Regulation*". Archived from the original on 16 June 2010. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ "Phil Taylor's Papers " Index". Archived from the original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ European Union – Tobacco advertising ban takes effect July 31 Archived 24 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Report on the implementation of the EU Tobacco Advertising Directive" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 September 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2008.
- ^ Tobacco – Health warnings Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. Retrieved 29 August 2008
- ^ Public Health at a Glance – Tobacco Pack Information
- ^ Scottish Government, St Andrew's House (21 January 2013). "Tobacco Display Ban Guidance". www2.gov.scot. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ^ "Guidance on the display and pricing of tobacco products in Northern Ireland | Department of Health". Health. 25 August 2015. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ^ Norwegian Government (1996). "Act No. 14 of March 9th, 1973 Relating to Prevention of the Harmful Effects of Tobacco (The Tobacco Control Act)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ^ "WHO | Norway: Prohibition on the visible display of tobacco products at the points of sale". WHO. Archived from the original on 13 February 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ^ "Imperial Tobacco take fight against cigarette display ban to Supreme". The Independent. 12 November 2012. Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ^ World Health Organisation (2017). "Evidence brief: Tobacco point-of-sale display bans" (PDF). WHO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
- ^ "Tobacco Sales Law". Archived from the original on 23 November 2010. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ Ahlfeldt, G., Maennig, W. (2010), Impact of non-smoking ordinances on hospitality revenues: The case of Germany, in Journal of Economics and Statistics, 230(5), 506–521; preliminary version in: Hamburg Contemporary Discussion Papers N° 26, http://www.uni-hamburg.de/economicpolicy/hced.html Archived 23 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "NFPA applauds Reynolds American Inc". Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ "NFPA" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 November 2007. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ^ a b "Coalition for Fire-Safe Cigarettes". Archived from the original on 16 August 2011. Retrieved 29 February 2016.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
- PMID 10529022.
- from the original on 4 July 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
- ^ "Why Nicotine is a Gateway Drug". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 22 May 2015. Archived from the original on 11 April 2020. Retrieved 20 April 2020.
- PMID 27658756.
- ^ "Vaping to quit smoking - NHS". nhs.uk. 20 September 2022. Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
- PMID 27306725.
- from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
- ^ Brunetta PG, Kroon L (2022). "Smoking Cessation". In Broaddus C, Ernst JD, King, TE, et al. (eds.). Murray & Nadel's Textbook of Respiratory Medicine (7 ed.). Elsevier. pp. 900–909.
- S2CID 4764039.
- ^ "Family First: Dr. Anil's Love-Infused Anti-Smoking Initiative". GorakhaPatra. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
Bibliography
- Gilman, Sander L.; Xun, Zhou (15 August 2004). Smoke: A Global History of Smoking. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-200-3. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- Goodman, Jordan, ed. Tobacco in History and Culture. An Encyclopedia (2 vol, Gage Cengage, 2005) online
- Hirschfelder, Arlene B. Encyclopedia of smoking and tobacco (1999) online
- Oreskes, Naomi, and Erik M. Conway. Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming (Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2011).
- Proctor, Robert N. (15 November 2000). The Nazi War on Cancer. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-07051-3. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- World Health Organization (2008). The Global Burden of Disease 2004 Update (PDF). ISBN 978-92-4-156371-0. Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 November 2008. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
- World Health Organization (2008). WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: the MPOWER package (PDF). ISBN 978-92-4-159628-2. Archived from the original(PDF) on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
External links
- Tobacco History Links – repository from Tobacco.org
- Surgeon General: Tobacco Cessation