Toledo, Spain
Toledo | |
---|---|
Castile–La Mancha | |
Province | Toledo |
Settled | Pre-Roman |
Government | |
• Mayor | Carlos Velázquez (PP) |
Area | |
• Land | 232.1 km2 (89.6 sq mi) |
Elevation | 529 m (1,736 ft) |
Population (2018)[2] | |
• Total | 85,085[1] |
• Density | 359.58/km2 (931.3/sq mi) |
Postcodes | 45001–45009 |
Area code | +34 925 |
Website | toledo |
Official name | Historic City of Toledo |
Criteria | Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv |
Reference | 379 |
Inscription | 1986 (10th Session) |
Area | 259.85 ha |
Buffer zone | 7,669.28 ha |
Toledo (UK: /tɒˈleɪdoʊ/ tol-AY-doh,[3] Spanish: [toˈleðo] ⓘ) is a city and municipality of Spain, the capital of the province of Toledo and the de jure seat of the government and parliament of the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha.
Toledo is primarily located on the right (North) bank of the
As of 2015[update], the municipality had a population of 83,226.[4] The municipality has an area of 232.1 km2 (89.6 sq mi).
Coat of arms
The town was granted arms in the 16th century, which by special royal privilege was based on the royal of arms of Spain.
History
Roman era and Late Antiquity
Toledo (
The Roman circus in Toledo was one of the largest in Hispania. The circus could hold up to 15,000 spectators. A fragmentary stone inscription records circus games paid for by a citizen of unknown name to celebrate his achieving the sevirate, a kind of priesthood conferring high status.[10] Games were held in the circus late into the 4th and early 5th centuries, an indication of active city life and ongoing patronage by wealthy elites.[11]
Toledo started to gain importance in late antiquity. There are indications that large private houses (domus) within the city walls were enlarged, while several large villas were built north of the city through the 3rd and 4th centuries.
Throughout the 7th century, a series of church councils—the so-called Councils of Toledo—discussed on the theological reconciliations on Nicene Christianity; they were held in Toledo under the Visigoths.[16] By the end of the 7th century the bishop of Toledo was the leader of all other bishops in Hispania, a situation unusual in Europe. It was also unmatched as a symbolic center of monarchy.[17][18]
When internal divisions developed under the Visigothic nobles,
Middle Ages
Following the Umayyad conquest, invaders were ethnically diverse, and available evidence suggests that in the area of Toledo (locally known as Ṭulayṭulah under Islamic rule), Berber settlement predominated over Arab.[22] In 742 the Berbers in Al-Andalus rebelled against the Arab Umayyad governors. They took control of the north and laid an unsuccessful siege on Toledo.[23]
Toledo retained its importance as a literary and ecclesiastical centre well into the mid-8th century; as demonstrated by the Chronicle of 754.[24] During this period, several letters show of the primacy that the church of Toledo held.[n. 1]
Under the Umayyad
In the wake of the early 11th-century
The taifa fell in political disarray, owing to the economic draining caused by the parias (tributes) imposed by the kingdom of León as well as territorial mutilations, and so a revolt erupted in 1079, which was followed by the Aftasid ruler of Badajoz taking control of the city.[39]
On 25 May 1085, Alfonso VI of León took Toledo and established direct personal control over the city from which he had been exacting tribute. Upon that time, the city's demographics featured a heterogeneous composition, with both Mozarabs, Muslims and Jewish communities, to which incoming Christians from northern Iberia and Frankish elements added up, so, initially, different fueros were simultaneously in force for each community.[40] After the Christian conquest, the city's Mozarab community grew by immigration from the Muslim south.[41]
Toledo preserved its status as a cultural centre; and a tag-team
A major popular revolt erupted in Toledo in 1449, with elements of tax mutiny, antisemitic and anticonverso sentiment, and appeals to the civic community, managing to expand from an urban revolt to some anti-seigneurial riots in countryside settlements of the hinterland of Toledo.[44]
Modern era
During the persecution of the Jews in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, members of the Jewish community of Toledo produced texts on their long history in Toledo.[citation needed] After the crushing of the
The archbishops of Toledo remained as powerful brokers in the political and religious affairs of Spain for the rest of the Ancien Régime,[46] also owning an extensive seigneurial land across most of the southern half of the Inner Plateau and some nearing territories.[47]
The mass arrival of deported unruly moriscos from
The city excelled in silk manufacturing during the Early Modern Period. The silk industry reached a peak in the 16th century, entering a protracted decline in the later years of that century and ultimately disappearing by the turn of the 19th century.[51]
The Peninsular War affected the city in a very negative way.[52] Over the course of the 19th century, Toledo underwent a progressive change from convent-city to bureaucratic city.[53] Being a city quite impervious to external influence at the time, Bourgeoisie exerted a limited influence.[54]
Following the exclusion of Toledo from the railway to the Portuguese border in the 1850s, a project of railway connection from Castillejo to Toledo lobbied by the
Following the
By 1950, the population stood at 40,243.[64] Urban planning vis-à-vis the development of the neighborhoods of Palomarejos and Polígono ensued in the second half of the 20th century.[64]
In the 1980s, in the context of the creation of the
Climate
Toledo has a typical
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Record high °C (°F) | 22.0 (71.6) |
23.8 (74.8) |
29.0 (84.2) |
34.5 (94.1) |
37.7 (99.9) |
42.0 (107.6) |
42.9 (109.2) |
44.2 (111.6) |
41.3 (106.3) |
34.1 (93.4) |
25.6 (78.1) |
22.2 (72.0) |
44.2 (111.6) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 11.5 (52.7) |
14.0 (57.2) |
18.1 (64.6) |
19.9 (67.8) |
24.2 (75.6) |
30.5 (86.9) |
34.6 (94.3) |
34.0 (93.2) |
29.0 (84.2) |
22.1 (71.8) |
15.6 (60.1) |
11.6 (52.9) |
22.1 (71.8) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 6.4 (43.5) |
8.3 (46.9) |
11.6 (52.9) |
13.5 (56.3) |
17.6 (63.7) |
23.2 (73.8) |
26.8 (80.2) |
26.3 (79.3) |
22.0 (71.6) |
16.1 (61.0) |
10.5 (50.9) |
7.1 (44.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 1.3 (34.3) |
2.6 (36.7) |
5.0 (41.0) |
7.2 (45.0) |
11.0 (51.8) |
15.9 (60.6) |
18.9 (66.0) |
18.6 (65.5) |
14.9 (58.8) |
10.2 (50.4) |
5.3 (41.5) |
2.5 (36.5) |
9.5 (49.0) |
Record low °C (°F) | −13.4 (7.9) |
−9.0 (15.8) |
−5.8 (21.6) |
−2.6 (27.3) |
−0.3 (31.5) |
4.3 (39.7) |
10.0 (50.0) |
10.0 (50.0) |
5.4 (41.7) |
0.0 (32.0) |
−5.6 (21.9) |
−8.0 (17.6) |
−13.4 (7.9) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 26.0 (1.02) |
25.0 (0.98) |
23.0 (0.91) |
39.0 (1.54) |
44.0 (1.73) |
24.0 (0.94) |
7.0 (0.28) |
9.0 (0.35) |
18.0 (0.71) |
48.0 (1.89) |
39.0 (1.54) |
41.0 (1.61) |
342.0 (13.46) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 4.9 | 4.7 | 3.9 | 6.4 | 6.4 | 2.9 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.9 | 6.8 | 5.9 | 6.3 | 53.6 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
76.0 | 69.0 | 59.0 | 58.0 | 54.0 | 45.0 | 39.0 | 41.0 | 51.0 | 66.0 | 74.0 | 79.0 | 59.0 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 160.0 | 187.7 | 234.3 | 264.6 | 302.8 | 354.5 | 395.2 | 364.1 | 278.0 | 224.4 | 168.6 | 148.4 | 2,922 |
Source: |
Economy
The metal-working industry has historically been Toledo's economic base, with a great tradition in the manufacturing of swords and knives and a significant production of razor blades, medical devices and electrical products. (
The manufacture of swords in the city of Toledo goes back to
In the 20th century, the production of knives and swords for the army was reduced to cavalry weapons only, and after the Spanish Civil War, to the supply of swords to the officers and NCOs of the various military units. Following the closure of the factory in the 1980s, the building was renovated to house the campus of the Technological University of Castilla-La Mancha in Toledo.[70] According to the Statistical Institute of Castilla-La Mancha, in 2007 the recent distribution of employment by sectors of occupation was as follows: 86.5% of the population engaged in the services, 6.6% in construction, 5.4% in industry and 1.5% in agriculture and livestock.[71]
Unemployment
In the decade to 2008, unemployment in absolute terms remained fairly stable in the city of Toledo, but in 2009 this figure increased significantly: nearly 62% compared to 2008, with the number of unemployed rising from 2,515 to 4,074 (figures at 31 March each year), according to the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha.[72] Of this 62%, one third of the increase took place in the first quarter.[citation needed]
According to other statistics from the same source, almost half the unemployed in the city of Toledo (1,970 persons) are among those whose education does not go beyond the compulsory secondary level.[citation needed] However, there are groups whose level of studies is such that they have not been registered as unemployed, such as those who have completed class 1 professional training, or those with virtually nonexistent unemployment rates (less than 0.1%), which is the case of unemployed with high school degrees or professional expertise.[citation needed]
The largest group among the unemployed is those who have no qualifications (27.27%).[citation needed]
Politics
Toledo has a 25-member City Council, elected by closed lists every four years. The 2023 election saw a pact made between the 9 members of the
Culture
The old city is located on a mountaintop with a 150-degree view, surrounded on three sides by a bend in the Tagus River, and contains many historical sites, including the Alcázar, the cathedral (the primate church of Spain), and the Zocodover, a central market place.
From the 4th century to the 16th century about thirty
As nearly one hundred early canons of Toledo found a place in the Decretum Gratiani, they exerted an important influence on the development of ecclesiastical law. The synod of 1565–1566 concerned itself with the execution of the decrees of the Council of Trent; and the last council held at Toledo, 1582–1583, was guided in detail by Philip II.
Toledo had large communities of Muslims and Jews until they were
In the 13th century, Toledo was a major cultural centre under the guidance of
The
The
Toledo was home to El Greco for the latter part of his life, and is the subject of some of his most famous paintings, including The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, exhibited in the Church of Santo Tomé.
When Philip II moved the royal court from Toledo to Madrid in 1561, the old city went into a slow decline from which it never recovered.
Toledo steel
Toledo has been a traditional sword-making, steel-working centre since about 500 BCE, and came to the attention of Rome when used by Hannibal in the Punic Wars. Soon, it became a standard source of weaponry for Roman legions.[76]
Today there is a significant trade, and many shops offer all kinds of swords to their customers, whether historical or modern films swords, as well as medieval armors and from other times, which are also exported to other countries.
Gastronomy
Some of the local specialties include lamb roast or stew, cochifrito, alubias con perdiz (beans with partridge) and perdiz estofoda (partridge stew),
Holidays
The Virgen del Valle pilgrimage is celebrated on May 1 at the Ermita de la Virgen del Valle, with a concentration popular holiday in that place.[citation needed] The Holy Week, declared of National Tourist Interest, is held in spring with various processions, highlighting those that take place on Good Friday, and religious and cultural events.[citation needed] The local feast of the Corpus Christi enjoys the status of celebration of International Tourist Interest since 1980.[82] It was conventionally celebrated 60 days after the Sunday of Resurrection.[83] The celebration of the feasts on the part of the Catholic Church had its heyday during the Baroque, post-Trent period.[84] A processional cortege travels around two kilometres (1.2 miles) of streets and richly decorated awnings.[citation needed] The Virgen del Sagrario is celebrated on 15 August, in honour of the Virgen del Sagrario, featuring a procession inside the Cathedral and drinking water of the Virgin in jars.[citation needed]
Main sights
The city of Toledo was declared a Historic-Artistic Site in 1940, UNESCO later given the title of World Heritage in 1987. Sights include:
- Tomb of Monastery of the Conceptionist nunsof Toledo.
- Posada de la Santa Hermandad, a type of military peacekeeping association of armed individuals, characteristic of municipal life in medieval Spain.
- Castle of San Servando, medieval castle near the banks of the Tagus river and the Infantry Academy.
- The Gothic Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo, dating from the thirteenth century. Inside there is the Clear from Narciso Tome, in Baroque.
- Isabelline Gothicstyle (15th century).
- The Renaissance Museo-Hospital de Santa Cruz (16th century).
- El Greco Museum, a house-museum designed as a recreation of the artist's home, which was lost centuries ago. It houses several important paintings.
- Santa María la Blanca, the oldest synagogue building in Europe still standing, now owned by the Catholic Church.
- Synagogue of El Transito, in the Jewish Quarter. It is home to the Sephardic Museum.
- Hospital de Tavera Museum Duque de Lerma. Renaissance style, dates from the sixteenth century. Influenced the layout of El Escorial.
- Church of Santiago del Arrabal, in Mudéjar style.
- Iglesia de Santo Tome. Mudéjar style, the fourteenth century, houses the famous Burial of Count Orgaz, by El Greco.
- El Cristo de la Luz, a former small mosque-oratory built in 999, later extended with Mudéjar apse for conversion into a Catholic church.
- Galiana Palace(13th century), in Mudéjar style.
- Tornerías Mosque(11th century).
- Alcázar fortress (16th century), located in the highest part of town, overlooking the city. From 2009 it houses the collection of the Army Museum.
- Iglesia de San Andrés, In its crypt are 60 mummiesof infantes, dukes, nuns and others, in a good state of preservation, open to visitors.
- Puerta Bab al-Mardum (10th century), the oldest city gate of Toledo.
- Puerta de Bisagra Antigua (10th century), the main entrance to the city in Andalusian times. Also known as "Puerta de Alfonso VI".
- Puerta del Sol (14th century), built by the Knights Hospitallers.
- Puerta de Bisagra Nueva (16th century), of Moorish origin re-built by Alonso de Covarrubias. The main entrance and face of Toledo today.
- Puerta del Cambrón, of Muslim origin, re-built in the 16th century.
- San Román(Museum of the Councils and Visigoth culture).
- Ermita del Cristo de la Vega, in Mudéjar style (11th century).
- Alcántara bridge, Roman bridge across the Tagus.
- Puente de San Martin, medieval bridge across the Tagus.
To mark the fourth centenary of the publication of the first part of Don Quixote, the Council of Communities of Castile–La Mancha designed a series of routes through the region crossing the various points cited in the novel. Known as the Route of Don Quixote, two of the pathways designated, sections 1 and 8, are based in Toledo; those linking the city with La Mancha Castile and Montes de Toledo exploit the natural route which passes through the Cigarrales and heads to Cobisa, Nambroca Burguillos of Toledo, where it takes the Camino Real from Sevilla to suddenly turn towards Mascaraque Almonacid de Toledo, deep into their surroundings, near Mora, in La Mancha.
This stretch, Mascaraque-Toledo, of the Route of Don Quixote has recently been included in an official way on the Camino de Santiago in Levantine branch with origins in Cartagena, Alicante and Valencia, as both routes are declared a European Cultural Route on this stretch.
Transport
Toledo has long been an obligatory stop in the centre of the peninsula. The roads leading to historic Toledo are still used and in many cases have provided the basis to existing roads leading into the city.
Roads
From Toledo part of N-400, which links this city with Cuenca by Ocaña and Tarancón. It is currently in the process of transformation in the future A-40 motorway Castilla La Mancha, which will link Maqueda (where it joins the motorway Extremadura), Toledo, Ocaña (where it attaches to the Motorway of Andalusia), Tarancón (where connects with the motorway Levante), Cuenca and Teruel.
The old National Road 401 Madrid-Toledo-Ciudad Real was transformed in the late 1980s into the current A-42 as a result of splitting and deleting the path that the various crossings counted (Illescas, Yuncos, etc.).
The split path can take 7 kilometres (4 miles) south of Toledo, in effect Ciudad Real, where it continues as conventional road. At this point, the A-42 connects with the Highway of the Vineyard that reaches Tomelloso. It is planned to extend the A-42, by a toll road, to Ciudad Real and Jaén.
In the early twenty-first century the toll motorway AP-41 was built, in order to reduce
Another way of State Highway Network that Toledo is part of the N-403, Toledo-Maqueda – Ávila – Adanero. Part of the route of this road will be replaced by that of the aforementioned Highway of Castilla La Mancha.
In addition to these roads, several regional and provincial-level roads depart from Toledo linking the city with the regions of Montes de Toledo, La Jara and La Mancha.
Rail
In the mid-nineteenth century Toledo was one of the first Spanish cities to receive rail service, with the arrival of the Madrid – Aranjuez line, which was inaugurated by Isabella II on June 12 of 1858. The current station,
The line suffered some technical issues and service disruptions, but continued to serve as the main intercity route until the early twenty-first century. On 2 July, 2003 the last conventional train service between the two capitals ended and work began on a high-speed link to Madrid, which entered service on November 15 of 2005.[85] The new line reduced the travel time to Madrid to just under 30 minutes.
Health
In the early 1960s began the construction of the Residence Health Social Security "Virgen de la Salud". The original building still remains in use, although successive extensions were added (maternity, outpatient clinics, operating rooms, etc.) into the existing complex. The complex was also extended to move the clinic to a new nearby building, now converted into Specialty Centre
The National Hospital for Paraplegics , inaugurated on 7 October 1974, became a centre of reference at the national level in the treatment of spinal cord injuries.[86] It also focuses on the social integration of their patients.
The transfer of powers from the state health at the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha will give new impetus to the health infrastructure, manifested in 2007 with the commencement of construction of the new General Hospital of Toledo in Santa María de Benquerencia. Also have been provided to the different parts of the relevant health centres.
In the Toledo Hospital Complex is also integrated Geriatric Hospital Virgen del Valle, a result of reform and modernization of old tuberculosis hospital built in the mid twentieth century. The centre is located outside the city, near the Parador Nacional de Turismo Conde de Orgaz.
The city also has several private health centers, including Hospital de las Tres Culturas and Clínica Nuestra Señora del Rosario.
Sport
Toledo suffered from a shortage of sports facilities.[citation needed] Much of this problem was resolved when the Central School of Physical Education of the Army moved its headquarters to the premises of the Academy of Infantry.[citation needed] In the 1990s, the city council took over the old facilities of the military centre, which now include an athletics track, Olympic swimming pool and an indoor sports hall, from the former military installations, and numerous outdoor courts built in the area of the former runway of application, having been demolished and the old gym complex pools (indoor and outdoor).[citation needed]
Besides these facilities, the city of Toledo has covered sports pavilions in the districts of Santa María de Benquerencia, Santa Bárbara, San Antón (Complejo Deportivo "Leaping Horse"), outdoor pools in sugar, Palomarejos, Santa María de Benquerencia, Santa Barbara, Santa Teresa and indoor swimming pools in the gardens of the Alcazar (old town), Santa María de Benquerencia and San Antonio.[citation needed]
Toledo has a football team,
Toledo has two basketball teams: the CIS Toledo, with a long history that has gone through ups and downs in both regional and in national leagues (EBA) and has just[when?] promoted to 1st Autonomic, and CB Polígono, currently the most representative, whose team has promoted male,[clarification needed] seven years after leaving, to EBA League to start the 2009/10 season.[citation needed] This club based in the Santa María de Benquerencia district and has one of the largest youth systems of Castilla-La Mancha.
Toledo has been represented in athletics since 2 April 1979 by the Toledo Athletic Club, that is characterised by its actions, mainly in cross-country, where he managed a large number of medals in the championships team Spain's specialty, in addition to their combined male and female military in the late 1990s in the 1st division league national track. Among the athletes who have passed through its lanes are great athletes as Julio Rey, Roberto Parra, Chema Martinez and Julia Lobato.
Cycling, meanwhile, after the victory in the
The FS and Volleyball Toledo Toledo Association Toledo complete representation in the National League of First and Second Division, after a brief journey in Fantasy, respectively, while the Toledo Rugby Club, with many fans, is immersed in the League Madrid's Primera Liga.[citation needed]
At the individual level, the swimmer
Media
Various local and provincial newspapers are published in the city. In addition, national newspapers such as the daily ABC publish unique local editions.[citation needed] Among the local newspapers are the subscription-based La Tribuna de Toledo, and Toledo Day, as well as the free Global Castilla la Mancha and Toledo News. The general information weekly magazines Echoes and Here are also published.
There is also local media in television, radio, and Internet. CMM TV, the regional public television is headquartered in Toledo.[90] In addition, there are several local television stations, as well as local fare: the diocesan Popular TV, Teletoledo, Canal Regional de Noticia and La Tribuna TV.
For radio stations, there is the dean of radio Radio Toledo (Onda Cero), as well as COPE, Cadena SER, RNE, RCM and Radio Aquí, and the local fare Onda Polígono and the diocesan station Radio Santa Maria. Within the digital and social media, Onda Toledo, Toledo Magic, Toledo Digital, and La Cerca.[citation needed]
Twin towns – sister cities
Toledo is
- Aachen, Germany (1984)
- Agen, France (1973)
- Corpus Christi, Texas, United States (1989)
- Damascus, Syria (1994)
- Guanajuato City, Mexico (1978)
- Heraklion, Greece (2014)
- Nara, Japan (1972)
- Old Havana, Cuba (2005)
- Safed, Israel (1981)
- Toledo, Ohio, United States (1931)
- Veliko Tarnovo, Bulgaria (1983)
See also
- Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
- Councils of Toledo
- Toledo School of Translators
- Palacio de Galiana
- Cerro del Bu
- Artificio de Juanelo
- List of people from Toledo, Spain
References
- Informational notes
- Citations
- ^ "Toledo: Población por municipios y sexo. (2902)". Instituto Nacional de Estadística. 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
- ^ Municipal Register of Spain 2018. National Statistics Institute.
- ^ "Toledo". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
- ^ "Tabla2902". www.ine.es. Retrieved 2016-03-01.
- ^ John S. Richardson (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell. p. 54.
- ^ Livy, History of Rome, 35, 22
- ^ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca (January 2008). "Continuidad y cambio en el proceso de romanización del ámbito celtibérico meridional y carpetano". academia.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ^ Tsiolis, Vassilis. "El primer recinto amurallado de Toledo". academia.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
- ^ Kulikowski, Michael (2004). Late Roman Spain and Its Cities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- ^ a b Rubio Rivera, Rebeca. "El circo romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en época romana". scribd.com. Retrieved 24 November 2015.
- ^ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca (2001). El Circo Romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en Época Romana. pp. 38–39. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
- ^ Rubio Rivera, Rebeca (2001). El Circo Romano de Toledo y la Vega Baja en Época Romana. p. 51. Retrieved 25 November 2015.
- ^ Richardson, John (1996). The Romans in Spain. Blackwell.
- ^ Gurt Esparraguera, Josep M.; Godoy Fernández, Cristina (2000). "Barcino, de sede imperial a vrbs regia en época visigoda". Memorias de la Real Academia de Buenas Letras de Barcelona. 25: 447–448.
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- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 9.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 43.
- ISBN 9780631181859.
- ISBN 9780631181859.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain. Blackwell. p. 30.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797. Blackwell. p. 195.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 108–110.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 57–80.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 72.
- ^ Roger Collins, Early Medieval Spain: Unity in Diversity, 400–1000, (St. Martin's Press, 1995), 187.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. p. 172, 201–203.
- ^ Collins, Roger (1989). Arab Conquest of Spain, 710–797 (Paperback 1994 ed.). Blackwell. pp. 209–210.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 32–33.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 27–28.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 43–44, 47.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. pp. 79–81.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. p. 171.
- ^ Collins, Roger (2014). Caliphs and Kings: Spain, 796–1031 (Paperback 2014 ed.). Wiley Blackwell. p. 145.
- ^ Ann Christys, Christians in Al-Andalus 711–1000, (Curzon Press, 2002), 20.
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- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 5, 9, 15.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. pp. 6–7.
- doi:10.21001/imagotemporis.v0i0.292993 (inactive 31 January 2024).)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - ISSN 0212-2480.
- ^ Reilly, Bernard F. (1992). Contest of Christian and Muslim Spain 1031–1157 (1995 paperback ed.). Blackwell. p. 20.
- ^ Grosser, P.E. and E.G. Halperin. "Jewish Persecution – History of AntiSemitism – Lesser Known Highlights of Jewish International Relations in the Common Era". simpletoremember.com. SimpleToRemember.com – Judaism Online. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
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- .
- ^ a b c Santos Vaquero, Ángel (2013). "¿Por qué Felipe II trasladó la Corte de Toledo a Madrid?" (PDF). Ateneo de Toledo.
- ISSN 0214-3038.
- ^ Camacho Cabello, José (1996). La población del arzobispado de Toledo en los Tiempos Modernos (PDF). pp. 13–14.
- ^ Gómez Vozmediano 1999, pp. 77–78.
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- Also
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1854–1857). "TOLETUM". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. London: John Murray.