Tomb of Antipope John XXIII
The Tomb of Antipope John XXIII is the
Cossa had a long history of cooperation with Florence, which had viewed him as the legitimate pontiff for a time during the
The tomb monument's design included figures of the
Antipope John XXIII
Antipope John XXIII had a complicated life, legacy, and relationship with the city of Florence. Baldassare Cossa was a
Cossa succeeded Alexander V as John XXIII in 1410. John XXIII was acknowledged as pope by France, England,
When Ladislaus of Naples conquered Rome in 1413, John XXIII was forced to flee to Florence. He was compelled by Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, to convoke the Council of Constance in 1414, although when the threat to his pontificate and possibly his person became apparent, he fled in 1415. Although he expected his departure would disperse the council, the members of which he called to join him under the protection of Frederick IV, Duke of Austria, it continued to operate where they were. As John XXIII tried to make his way towards the territory of John II, Duke of Burgundy, Frederick IV surrendered him to the custody of Sigismund and the Council, and he was imprisoned by Louis III.[8]
In the meantime, the Council deposed John XXIII on May 29, 1415 and elected
In Florence, Cossa submitted to Martin V on June 14, 1419 and was rewarded with a cardinal's hat on June 26, only to die on December 22.[13] Although given the title of Cardinal Bishop of Tusculum, Cossa called himself "Cardinal of Florence".[14]
Funeral
Cossa's body was moved to the Baptistry and the nine-day funeral, as prescribed by the Ordo Romanus, was well-attended by the Florentine elite and the papal court.[15] Cossa's corpse was crowned with a white mitre with his cardinal's hat at his feet on the funerary bier during the rituals, which took place entirely within the Baptistry and Duomo.[16] The first three days of ceremonies celebrated in turn Cossa's role as cardinal and pope, his role as an ally of Florence, and his role as a private citizen.[17] He received a temporary burial until the tomb was complete.[18]
Commissioning
The commissioning of Cossa's tomb monument was negotiated for about a decade following Cossa's death. Cossa's
Cossa designated four prominent Florentines as his executors: Bartolommeo di Taldo Valori, Niccolò da Uzzano, Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici, and Vieri Guadagni,[21] allowing any two of the executors to act on behalf of all four, as Valori and Medici appear to have done.[22] Valori died on September 2, 1427, by which time Guadagni was also deceased and Uzzano had long lost interest, leaving the remaining work of commissioning entirely to Giovanni, or—more likely—Cosimo de' Medici.[23]
The executors claimed that Cossa had revealed his desire for burial in the Baptistry to them but had been too modest to request it in his will.[24] Most later scholars accept this testimony of the executors, attributing Cossa with "tact—and tactics", although at least one has postulated that the executors chose the site of the Baptistry against Cossa's wishes.[25]
Documentary records indicate that, on January 9, 1421,
The Calimala's acquiescence is traditionally explained by Cossa's donation of the
Completion
The chronology of the tomb monument's completion is not precisely known, but portions can be determined from various sources. According to the passing reference of a Florentine notary, in 1424 (by the Florentine calendar) part of the tomb was installed.[31] Michelozzo's Catasto from July 1427 indicates that Michelozzo had been Donatello's partner for about two years ("due anni o incircha") and that three-fourths of the 800 florin budget had been spent.[32] To harmonize these accounts, one must conclude either that Michelozzo's chronology was imprecise, that Donatello received the commission before the partnership was formed, or that the 1424 date in the Florentine calendar falls in 1425 in the modern calendar.[33]
On February 2, 1425, Bartolomeo Valori and Cosimo de' Medici requested 400 of the 800 florins that had been deposited with the
It is probable that the sarcophagus was installed on or shortly before May 2, 1426, when the Calimala contracted for two chaplains to say a daily mass for Cossa's soul.[35] The records of the Duomo workshop indicate that on January 28, 1427 Valori bought four white marble blocks for the tomb.[37]
The exact date of completion is unknown but an extreme
Vasari suggests that the tomb went over budget, costing 1,000 florins, although it is unclear who covered the excess.
Design
The Baptistry already contained three
The tomb monument adapted to the conditions imposed by the Calimala and integrated with the interior of the Baptistry. The
Although the style of the work is thoroughly classicising, the overall form reflects the grandest type of the medieval Italian wall tomb, in which the vertical piling-up of a series of different elements is characteristic.
Base
The base slab, or
Virtues
Above the pylon, separated by the cornice, are the
The 1.05-metre (3.44 ft) tall Faith, to the right of Charity, is holding a
Sarcophagus and inscription
Above the Virtues, four classical
The inscription reads:[31] IOANnES QVOnDAM PAPA |
Which translates to: John the former pope
|
Pope Martin V objected to a portion of the inscription—"IOANnES QVOnDAM PAPA"—because he thought it implied Cossa had died as pope (the
According to Avery, Donatello's Ascension of Christ and the Giving of the Keys to St. Peter may have been intended to share the front of the sarcophagus,[73] further strengthening the papal associations, which were created by dating Cossa's death using the ancient Roman Calends of January, which was uncommon on Florentine tombs, but was used in papal ones.[74]
Effigy
On top of the sarcophagus, the bier of the effigy is supported by lions whose shape mimics Trecento consoles.[75] The lions may be based on the Florentine Marzocco, as if to mark John XXIII in the same manner as a conquered city-state. As Donatello's Marzocco for the papal apartment in Santa Maria Novella conveyed Florence's ambivalence towards Martin V (as both a source of prestige by visiting, and a potential adversary of the Republic), the lions supporting the bier contextualize the tomb monument's support for John XXIII's claim to the papacy by cementing it as a Florentine claim. Yet, any iconographical interpretation of the lions must be taken with a grain of salt as lions are symbolically promiscuous,[68] and are also seen as supports on earlier tombs, such as that of Lapo de' Bardi (d. 1342) in the Bargello.[76]
The bier and the pall spread over it are tilted towards the viewer with the lion supporting the head standing 2-centimetre (1 in) shorter, increasing the visibility of the effigy, especially the head.[77] The gilded-bronze, life-size effigy itself makes no attempt to argue for Cossa's papal status, dressing Cossa clearly in the costume of a cardinal;[78] the bedding it rests on is of un-gilt bronze. The opening in the 16th century of the sarcophagus confirmed that Cossa's actual burial clothes matched the effigy.[79] There was no precedent for a three-dimensional gilded-bronze effigy on an Italian tomb monument; there was, however, a 6-foot (1.83 m) gilt bronze statue on the balcony of the Palazzo della Briada in Bologna commissioned by Pope Boniface VIII.[68]
Some scholars suggest that Donatello created the effigy with the aid of a death mask,[80] but others disagree.[81]
Canopy
Behind the effigy is a 1.34-metre (4.40 ft) tripartite pylon with sunk molded borders supporting the cornice and framed by two additional Corinthian pilasters. Above it rests an
Attribution
The tomb monument was the first collaboration between
Nearly every element of the tomb monument has been attributed to both Donatello and Michelozzo by different art historians.[87] These characterizations are mostly of historiographical interest: attribution to Donatello is more of an indication of what is valued by each commentator than any objective criteria; often, aspects are attributed to Michelozzo explicitly because they are "less well executed".[61]
Descriptions from 1475 to 1568 attribute all of the tomb except for the figure of Faith to Donatello.[88] Some modern sources reverse this dichotomy, attributing all of the tomb to Michelozzo with the exception of the gilded bronze effigy.[63] Some sources credit Donatello only with the bronze effigy.[89] According to Janson, of the marble work, only the putti can be attributed to "Donatello's own hand".[81] Donatello's alleged deficiencies in casting or in architecture have been proposed as the reason for his partnership with Michelozzo,[90] in addition to his busy schedule.[91]
Notes
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 4.
- ^ a b Lightbown, 1980, p. 16l; Caplow, 1977, p. 107.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 156; Strocchia, 1992, p. 142.
- ^ a b c Lightbown, 1980, p. 26.
- ^ a b Lightbown, 1980, p. 24.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 4; Caplow, 1977, pp. 98–99.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Strocchia, 1992, p. 137; Lightbown, 1980, p. 5.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 153.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 154.
- ^ Strocchia, 1992, p. 136.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, pp. 99–100.
- ^ Strocchia, 1992, p. 137.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 100.
- ^ McHam, 1989, pp. 154–5; Strocchia, 1992, p. 138; Lightbown, 1980, p. 44.
- ^ Strocchia, 1992, p. 139.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 14.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Janson, 1963, p. 59.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 22.
- ^ McHam, 1989, pp. 155–6.
- ^ a b Janson, 1963, p. 61.
- ^ Janson, 1963, p. 59; Caplow, 1977, p. 103.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 16.
- ^ a b Lightbown, 1980, p. 20.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, pp. 101–102; Strocchia, 1992, p. 138.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 9–10.
- ^ a b Lightbown, 1980, p. 19.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, pp. 105–108; Grassi, 1964, p. 69.
- ^ Janson, 1964, pp. 59–62.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 104.
- ^ a b Lightbown, 1980, p. 21.
- ^ Vasari, Vite, ed. Milanesi, ii, 1878, p. 399. Cited by Caplow, 1977, p. 106; McHam, 1989, p. 156; Lightbown, 1980, p. 18.
- ^ Janson, 1963, p. 59; Caplow, 1977, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, pp. 116–119; McHam, 1989, p. 157; Strocchia, 1992, p. 134.
- ^ Janson, 1963, p. 63.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 116; Lightbown, 1980, p. 23. This claim is also made by Del Migliore, 1684, Firenze città nobilissima.
- ^ a b c Janson, 1963, p. 62.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 23.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 16, 24.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 120; Lightbown, 1980, p. 24; McHam, "Donatello's Tomb of Pope John XXIII", p. 147.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 120.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 121.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 149; Lightbown, 1980, p. 26.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 30–31.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 163.
- ^ Levey, 1996, pp. 151–153.
- ^ Pope-Hennessy, pp. 15–19 and 183–186.
- ^ Pope-Hennessy, p. 46 and fig. 89.
- ISBN 1-85669-439-9
- ^ Levey, Michael; Early Renaissance, p. 57-59, 1967, Penguin
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 114.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 50.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 25–27.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 38.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 134.
- ^ a b Lightbown, 1980, p. 37.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 133; Lightbown, 1980, p. 37.
- ^ a b c McHam, 1989, p. 157.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 27.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 28.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 135.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 105; McHam, 1989, p. 149.
- ^ a b c McHam, 1989, p. 159.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 161.
- ^ Panofsky, 1964, p. 72.
- ^ Gardner, 1992, p. 62; Lightbown, 1980, p. 25.
- ^ Meyer, 1904, p. 76; Lightbown, 1980, p. 46.
- ^ Avery, 1994, pp. 36–39.
- ^ McHam, 1989, pp. 163–4.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 122.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 42.
- ^ Meyer, 1904, p. 63; Lightbown, 1980, p. 28.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 43; McHam, 1989, p. 159.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 44; Grassi, 1965, p. 70.
- ^ a b Janson, 1963, p. 64.
- ^ McHam, 1989, p. 149, 159.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 28–29.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 32.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 1.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, pp. 122–140; Janson, 1963, pp. 63–64; Lightbown, 1980, p. 18.
- ^ Caplow, 1977, p. 119.
- ^ Grassi, 1964, p. 69.
- ^ Janson, 1963, pp. 50–56, 63.
- ^ Lightbown, 1980, p. 33.
References
- Avery, Charles. 1994. Donatello: An Introduction. New York: IconEditions. ISBN 978-0-06-430311-8
- Caplow, Harriet McNeal. 1977. Michelozzo. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8240-2678-3
- Gardner, Julian. 1992. The Tomb and the Tiara. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-817510-0
- Grassi, Luigi. Colacicchi, Paul (translator). 1964. All the Sculpture of Donatello. New York: Hawthorn Books, Inc. OCLC 1039596
- ISBN 0-691-03528-8
- ISBN 0-7126-7310-5
- ISBN 0-905203-22-4
- McHam, Sarah Blake. 1989. "Donatello’s Tomb of Pope John XXIII". In Life and Death in Fifteenth-Century Florence. Eds. Tetel, Marcel, Witt, Ronald G., and Goffen, Rona. Durham: Duke University Press. pp. 146–173. ISBN 978-0-8223-0872-0
- Meyer, Alfred Gotthold. Konody, P.G. (translator). 1904. Donatello. Leipzig: Velhagen & Klasing. (Available online)
- ISBN 0-7148-2415-1
- ISBN 0-7148-2824-6
- Strocchia, Sharon T. 1992. Death and Ritual in Renaissance Florence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-979-533-077-6