Torture

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For other uses, see Torture (disambiguation).

Captured Viet Cong soldier, blindfolded and tied in a stress position by American forces during the Vietnam War, 1967.

Torture is the deliberate infliction of severe pain or suffering on a person for various reasons, including punishment, extracting a confession, interrogation for information, or intimidating third parties.

methods of torture are used, often in combination; the most common form of physical torture is beatings. Since the twentieth century, many torturers have preferred non-scarring or psychological
methods to provide deniability.

Torturers more commonly act out of fear or due to limited resources than sadism. Although most torturers are thought to learn about torture techniques informally and rarely receive an explicit order, they are enabled by organizations that facilitate and encourage their behavior. Once a torture program is begun, it usually escalates beyond what is originally intended and often leads to involved agencies losing effectiveness. Torture aims to break the victim's will and destroy their agency and personality and is cited as one of the most damaging experiences that a person can undergo. Many victims suffer both physical damage—chronic pain is particularly common—and mental sequelae. Although torture survivors have among the highest rate of post-traumatic stress disorder, many are psychologically resilient.

Torture has been carried out since ancient times but in the

incommunicado detention
have had positive effects. Although its incidence has declined, torture is still practiced by most countries.

Definitions

Main article: Definitions of torture

Torture

cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment by considering only the torturer's purpose, and not the severity.[11][12] Other definitions, such as that in the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture, focus on the torturer's aim "to obliterate the personality of the victim".[13][14]

History

Pre-abolition

Assyrian relief

In most ancient, medieval, and early modern societies, torture was legally and morally acceptable.

the rack and strappado.[22] In most societies, citizens could be judicially tortured only under exceptional circumstances and for a serious crime such as treason, often only when some evidence already existed. In contrast, non-citizens such as foreigners and slaves were commonly tortured.[23]

Torture was rare in

evidence obtained under torture to be inadmissible.[30]

Abolition and continued use

"The custody of a criminal does not require torture" by Francisco Goya, c. 1812

During the seventeenth century, torture remained legal in Europe, but its practice declined.

torture in China continued throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.[40]

Torture was widely used by

fascist states.[15]

Torture was also used by both communist and anti-communist governments during the

liberal democracies of the West, but torture was still used there, against ethnic minorities or criminal suspects from marginalized classes, and during overseas wars against foreign populations.[41] After the September 11 attacks, the US government embarked on an overseas torture program as part of its war on terror.[48] It is disputed whether torture is increasing, decreasing, or remaining constant.[49]

Prevalence

Tear gas used during the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests. Use of tear gas on protestors is sometimes considered a form of torture.[50]

Most countries practice torture, although few acknowledge it.

open societies where there is a commitment to protecting human rights.[54] Many torture survivors, especially those from poor or marginalized populations, are unwilling to report.[55][56] Monitoring has focused on police stations and prisons, although torture can also occur in other facilities such as immigration detention and youth detention centers.[57][58] Torture that occurs outside of custody—including extrajudicial punishment, intimidation, and crowd control—has traditionally not been counted, even though some studies have suggested it is more common than torture in places of detention.[59][55][56] There is even less information on the prevalence of torture before the twentieth century.[15] Although it is often assumed that men suffer torture at a higher rate than women, there is a lack of evidence.[60] Some quantitative research has estimated that torture rates are either stagnant or increasing over time, but this may be a measurement effect.[49]

Although liberal democracies are less likely to abuse their citizens, they may practice torture against marginalized citizens and non-citizens to whom they are not democratically accountable.

majoritarian institutions are ineffective at preventing torture against minorities or foreigners.[62] Torture is more likely when a society feels threatened because of wars or crises,[61][62] but studies have not found a consistent relationship between the use of torture and terrorist attacks.[63]

Torture is directed against certain segments of the population, who are denied the protection against torture that others enjoy.

sex work, or working in the informal economy, can lead to violent and arbitrary policing.[70] Routine violence against poor and marginalized people is often not seen as torture, and its perpetrators justify the violence as a legitimate policing tactic;[71] victims lack the resources or standing to seek redress.[69]

Perpetrators

Since most research has focused on torture victims, less is known about the perpetrators of torture.

coping mechanisms, such as alcohol or drugs.[76] Psychiatrist Pau Pérez-Sales finds that torturers act from a variety of motives such as ideological commitment, personal gain, group belonging, avoiding punishment, or avoiding guilt from previous acts of torture.[77]

Although it is often assumed that torture is ordered from above at the highest levels of government,[78] sociologist Jonathan Luke Austin argues that government authorization is a necessary but not sufficient condition for torture to occur, given that a specific order to torture rarely can be identified.[79] In many cases, a combination of dispositional and situational effects lead a person to become a torturer.[77][80] In most cases of systematic torture, the torturers were desensitized to violence by being exposed to physical or psychological abuse during training[81][82][83] which can be a deliberate tactic to create torturers.[49] Even when not explicitly ordered by the government to torture,[84] perpetrators may feel peer pressure due to competitive masculinity.[85] Elite and specialized police units are especially prone to torturing, perhaps because of their tight-knit nature and insulation from oversight.[84] Although some torturers are formally trained, most are thought to learn about torture techniques informally.[86][49]

Torture can be a side effect of a broken criminal justice system in which underfunding, lack of

fair trials.[87][88] In this context, people who cannot afford bribes are likely to become victims of torture.[89][88] Understaffed or poorly trained police are more likely to resort to torture when interrogating suspects.[90][91] In some countries, such as Kyrgyzstan, suspects are more likely to be tortured at the end of the month because of performance quotas.[90]

The contribution of bureaucracy to torture is under-researched and poorly understood.[49] Torturers rely on both active supporters and those who ignore it.[92] Military, intelligence, psychology, medical, and legal professionals can all be complicit in torture.[74] Incentives can favor the use of torture on an institutional or individual level, and some perpetrators are motivated by the prospect of career advancement.[93][94] Bureaucracy can diffuse responsibility for torture and help perpetrators excuse their actions.[81][95] Maintaining secrecy is often essential to maintaining a torture program, which can be accomplished in ways ranging from direct censorship, denial, or mislabeling torture as something else, to offshoring abuses to outside a state's territory.[96][97] Along with official denials, torture is enabled by moral disengagement from the victims and impunity for the perpetrators.[62] Public demand for decisive action against crime or even support for torture against criminals can facilitate its use.[65]

Once a torture program is begun, it is difficult or impossible to prevent it from escalating to more severe techniques and expanding to larger groups of victims, beyond what is originally intended or desired by decision-makers.

witch hunt.[49] Escalation of torture is especially difficult to contain in counterinsurgency operations.[85] Torture and specific techniques spread between different countries, especially by soldiers returning home from overseas wars, although this process is poorly understood.[101][102]

Purpose

Punishment

dismembered during the Boxer Rebellion

The use of torture for punishment dates back to antiquity, and is still employed in the 21st century.[19] A common practice in countries with dysfunctional justice systems or overcrowded prisons is for police to apprehend suspects, torture them, and release them without a charge.

vigilantes to be tortured.[107] This type of extrajudicial violence is often carried out in public to deter others. It discriminatorily targets minorities and marginalized groups and may be supported by the public, especially if people do not trust the official justice system.[108]

The classification of

John D. Bessler, argue that capital punishment is inherently a form of torture carried out for punishment.[110][111] Executions may be carried out in brutal ways, such as stoning, death by burning, or dismemberment.[112] The psychological harm of capital punishment is sometimes considered a form of psychological torture.[113] Others do not consider corporal punishment with a fixed penalty to be torture, as it does not seek to break the victim's will.[114]

Deterrence

See also: Deterrence (penology)

Torture may also be used indiscriminately to terrorize people other than the direct victim or to deter opposition to the government.

forced disappearance.[119] Authoritarian regimes often resort to indiscriminate repression because they cannot accurately identify potential opponents.[120] Many insurgencies lack the necessary infrastructure for a torture program and instead intimidate by killing.[121] Research has found that state torture can extend the lifespan of terrorist organizations, increase incentives for insurgents to use violence, and radicalize the opposition.[122][49] Another form of torture for deterrence is violence against migrants, as has been reported during pushbacks on the European Union's external borders.[123]

Confession

Further information: Forced confession

Torture has been used throughout history to extract confessions from detainees. In 1764, Italian reformer

state propaganda.[127]

Interrogation

Main article: Interrogational torture
Two United States soldiers and one South Vietnamese soldier waterboard a captured North Vietnamese prisoner of war near Da Nang, 1968.

The use of torture to obtain information during

Fictional portrayals of torture as an effective interrogational method have fueled misconceptions that justify the use of torture.[137] Experiments comparing torture with other interrogation methods cannot be performed for ethical and practical reasons,[138][139][140] but most scholars of torture are skeptical about its efficacy in obtaining accurate information, although torture sometimes has obtained actionable intelligence.[141][142] Interrogational torture can often shade into confessional torture or simply into entertainment,[143] and some torturers do not distinguish between interrogation and confession.[140]

Methods

Main article: List of methods of torture
Abdou Hussain Saad Faleh (previously thought to be Ali Shallal al-Qaisi) being tortured by United States forces at Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq.

A wide variety of techniques have been used for torture.[144] Nevertheless, there are a limited number of ways of inflicting pain while minimizing the risk of death.[145][60] Survivors report that the exact method used is not significant.[146] Most forms of torture include both physical and psychological elements[147][148] and multiple methods are typically used on one person.[149][60] Different methods of torture are popular in different countries.[150][60] Low-tech methods are more commonly used than high-tech ones, and attempts to develop scientifically validated torture technology have failed.[151] The prohibition of torture motivated a shift to methods that do not leave marks to aid in deniability and to deprive victims of legal redress.[152][153] As they faced more pressure and scrutiny, democracies led the innovation in clean torture practices in the early twentieth century; such techniques diffused worldwide by the 1960s.[154][21] Patterns of torture differ based on a torturer's time limits—for example, resulting from legal limits on pre-trial detention.[155]

Beatings or

Asphyxiation, of which waterboarding is a form, inflicts torture on the victim by cutting off their air supply.[161]

Psychological torture includes methods that involve no physical element as well as forcing a person to do something and physical attacks that ultimately target the mind.

Positional torture works by forcing the person to adopt a stance, putting their weight on a few muscles, causing pain without leaving marks, for example standing or squatting for extended periods.[170] Rape and sexual assault are universal torture methods and frequently instill a permanent sense of shame in the victim, and in some cultures humiliate their family and society.[171][172] Cultural and individual differences affect how different torture methods are perceived by the victim.[173]

Effects

Norwegian resistance fighter Lauritz Sand recovering after his release from the Gestapo, May 1945

Torture is one of the most devastating experiences that a person can undergo.[174] Torture aims to break the victim's will[175] and destroy the victim's agency and personality.[176] Torture survivor Jean Améry argued that it was "the most horrible event a human being can retain within himself" and that "whoever was tortured, stays tortured".[177][178] Many torture victims, including Améry, later die by suicide.[179] Survivors often experience social and financial problems.[180] Circumstances such as housing insecurity, family separation, and the uncertainty of applying for asylum in a safe country strongly impact survivors' well-being.[181]

Death is not an uncommon outcome of torture.

psychologically resilient.[188]

Criminal prosecutions for torture are rare[189] and most victims who submit formal complaints are not believed.[190] Despite the efforts for evidence-based evaluation of the scars from torture such as the Istanbul Protocol, most physical examinations are inconclusive.[191] The effects of torture are one of several factors that usually result in inconsistent testimony from survivors, hampering their effort to be believed and secure either refugee status in a foreign country or criminal prosecution of the perpetrators.[192]

Although there is less research on the effects of torture on perpetrators,[193] they can experience moral injury or trauma symptoms similar to the victims, especially when they feel guilty about their actions.[194][195] Torture has corrupting effects on the institutions and societies that perpetrate it. Torturers forget important investigative skills because torture can be an easier way than time-consuming police work to achieve high conviction rates, encouraging the continued and increased use of torture.[196][194][197] Public disapproval of torture can harm the international reputation of countries that use it, strengthen and radicalize violent opposition to those states,[198][199][200] and encourage adversaries to themselves use torture.[201]

Public opinion

Studies have found that most people around the world oppose the use of torture in general.

state repression.[202] Public opinion is an important constraint on the use of torture by states.[208]

Prohibition

Further information: Torture in international law
Proposed United States poster, 1942 or 1943

The condemnation of torture as barbaric and uncivilized originated in the debates around its abolition.[209] By the late nineteenth century, countries began to be condemned internationally for the use of torture.[210] The ban on torture became part of the civilizing mission justifying colonial rule on the pretext of ending torture,[211][212] despite the use of torture by colonial rulers themselves.[213] The condemnation was strengthened during the twentieth century in reaction to the use of torture by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union.[214] Shocked by Nazi atrocities during World War II, the United Nations drew up the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which prohibited torture.[215][216] Torture is criticized on the basis of all major ethical frameworks, including deontology, consequentialism, and virtue ethics.[217][218] Some contemporary philosophers argue that torture is never morally acceptable; others propose exceptions to the general rule in real-life equivalents of the ticking time-bomb scenario.[219][220]

Torture stimulated the creation of the

Naming and shaming campaigns against torture have shown mixed results; they can be ineffective and even make things worse.[49]

Convention against Torture
in dark green, states that have signed the treaty in yellow, and others in gray

The prohibition of torture is a

Optional Protocol focus on the prevention of torture, which was already prohibited in international human rights law under other treaties such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[229][230] The CAT specifies that torture must be a criminal offense under a country's laws,[58] evidence obtained under torture may not be admitted in court, and deporting a person to another country where they are likely to face torture is forbidden.[227] Even when it is illegal under national law, judges in many countries continue to admit evidence obtained under torture or ill treatment.[231][232] It is disputed whether ratification of the CAT decreases, does not affect, or even increases the rate of torture in a country.[49]

In

crime against humanity;[234] it is recognized by both the 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court as a war crime.[235][236] According to the Rome Statute, torture can also be a crime against humanity if committed as part of a systematic attack on a civilian population.[237]

Prevention

The Torture Never Again Monument in Brazil, by sculptor Demétrio Albuquerque [pt], features the body of a naked man in the position of the pau de arara.

Torture prevention is complicated both by lack of understanding about why torture occurs and by lack of application of what is known.

incommunicado detention.[238][239] Because the risk of torture is highest directly after an arrest, procedural safeguards such as immediate access to a lawyer and notifying relatives of an arrest are the most effective ways of prevention.[240] Visits by independent monitoring bodies to detention sites can also help reduce torture.[241] Legal changes that are not implemented in practice have little effect on the incidence of torture.[242] Legal changes can be particularly ineffective in places where the law has limited legitimacy or is routinely ignored.[58]

Sociologically, torture operates as a subculture, frustrating prevention efforts because torturers can find a way around rules.[243] Safeguards against torture in detention can be evaded by beating suspects during round-ups or on the way to the police station.[244][245] General training of police to improve their ability to investigate crime has been more effective at reducing torture than specific training focused on human rights.[246][247] Institutional police reforms have been effective when abuse is systematic.[248][249] Political scientist Darius Rejali criticizes torture prevention research for not figuring out "what to do when people are bad; institutions broken, understaffed, and corrupt; and habitual serial violence is routine".[250]

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Sources

Books

Book chapters

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