Torture during the Algerian War
Elements from the French Armed Forces used deliberate torture during the Algerian War (1954–1962), creating an ongoing public controversy. Pierre Vidal-Naquet, a renowned French historian, estimated that there were "hundreds of thousands of instances of torture" by the French military in Algeria.[1]
Overview
The Algerian War was an armed conflict between the French Armed Forces and the Algerian National Liberation Front between the years 1954-1962 which ended with Algeria gaining independence from France. The French state itself refused to see the colonial conflict as a war, as that would recognize the other party (the National Liberation Front, FLN) as a legitimate entity. Thus, until 10 August 1999, the French Republic persisted in calling the Algerian War a simple "operation of public order" against the FLN "terrorism."[2]
Since France did not consider the conflict to be a war but rather "maintaining order" in the country, it did not consider itself tied by Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions, which only mandates the humane treatment of persons in a non-interstate conflict.[3] Besides prohibiting the use of torture, Common Article 3 gave the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) access to the detainees. Those detained by the French were considered criminals and therefore did not receive the treatment that should be granted to them under Common Article 3. It wasn't until it became public knowledge in 1957 that the French government was using torture that they began to grant more rights to captured rebels. In 1957 the leader of the French Army in Algeria, Raoul Salan, announced that the they would start treating captured enemies “as close as possible as the way in which prisoners of war are taken care of by civilized countries.”[3] There was also the creation of interment camps for prisoners the following year, but the French government continued with their stance that the conflict was not a war.[3]
Early in the war, the FLN was progressively assuming control in Algeria through targeted acts against French nationals and Algerians supporting the French. From 1954 to 1956, the amount of violence massively increased, accompanied by
The ICRC was authorized by
The controversy over the use of torture continues to have echoes today. Already in 1977, British historian
The Battle of Algiers (January–October 1957), the state of emergency and the ICRC report
The civilian authorities relinquished control to the military during the
If, in the general interest, the law allows a murderer to be killed, why should it be seen as monstrous to submit a delinquent who has been recognized as such, and is therefore liable to be put to death, to an interrogation which might be painful but whose only object is, thanks to the revelations he may make about his accomplices and leaders, to protect the innocent? Exceptional circumstances call for exceptional measures.[9]
In 1958 General Salan set up special military internment centers for PAM rebels. The Minister of Interior declared a
On 5 January 1960 the newspaper Le Monde published a summary of the report on the ICRC's seventh mission to Algeria. "Numerous cases of ill-treatment and torture are still being reported", the article disclosed, giving the ICRC's legitimacy to the many previously documented cases. A colonel in the French police force had told the delegates, "The struggle against terrorism makes it necessary to resort to certain questioning techniques as the only way of saving human life and avoiding new attacks." (Branche, 2004).[4]
It was found much later that Gaston Gosselin, a member of the Ministry of Justice who was responsible for internment issues in metropolitan France, had leaked the report to the journalists of Le Monde. He had to resign a few months later, and the ICRC was prohibited for a year from undertaking any mission to Algeria.[10]
Other testimony and descriptions
Benoist Rey's book Les égorgeurs was also censored in April 1961. In the same year, he denounced torture as a "habitual repressive method, systematic, official, and massive."
According to an article of Verité Liberté published in 1961, "In the Ameziane farm, a CRA (Centre de renseignement et d'action, Information and Action Center) of Constantine it is practiced on "industrial scale". The suspects were arrested during raids, after having been denounced. Suspects were divided into two groups, those immediately interrogated and those who would be forced to wait a bit. The latter were deprived of food for from two to eight days in a blatant violation of the 1949 Geneva Conventions."
According to historian R. Branche, torture would begin with the systematic stripping of the victim. Beating was combined with many different techniques, among them hanging by the feet or hands, water torture, torture by electric shock, and rape.[4] It was described by "Verité Liberté":
The
intelligence agent (Guide provisoire de l'officier de renseignement, OR), chapter IV: first, the officer questions the prisoner in the "traditional" manner, hitting him with fist and kicking him. Then follows torture: hanging..., water torture..., electricity..., burning (using cigarettes, etc.)... Cases of prisoners who were driven insane were frequent... Between interrogation sessions, the suspects are imprisoned without food in cells, some of which were small enough to impede lying down. We must point out that some of them were very young teenagers and others old men of 75, 80 years or more.[12]
According to the "Vérité Liberté", the end of these torture sessions was either liberation (often the case for women and for those who could pay), internment, or "disappearance." "The capacity of this center, opened in 1957, is of 500 to 600 persons...Since its constitution, it has "controlled" (incarcerated for fewer than 8 days) 108,175 persons; filed 11,518 Algerians as nationalist activists...; kept for a duration of more than 8 days 7,363 persons; interned to Hamma [an internment camp] 789 suspects."[12]
Colonialism
Torture was a procedure in use since the beginning of the
Other historians also show that torture was fully a part of the colonialist system: "Torture in Algeria was engraved in the colonial act, it is the "normal" illustration of an abnormal system", wrote Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, and Sandrine Lemaire, who have published decisive work on the phenomena of "
Three years before the 1954 Toussaint Rouge insurrection, Claude Bourdet, a former Resistant wrote an article published on 6 December 1951 in L'Observateur, which was titled "Is there a Gestapo in Algeria?" Torture had also been used during the
Historian
In metropolitan France
The war also affected metropolitan France. Little firm evidence exists about the use of torture by either side in France, but there were instances where French police or police auxiliaries may have engaged in torture as well as murder of FLN agents or protesters, and likewise the FLN may have used torture in eliminating opponents and collecting funds among Algerian expatriates in France.
From 1954 onward, the FLN sought to establish a politico-military organization among the 300,000 Algerians residing in France; by 1958, it had overwhelmed Messali Hadj's Algerian National Movement, despite the latter's popularity with Algerian expatriates at the onset of the war. Torture was occasionally used alongside beatings and killings to eliminate opponents of the FLN, and the death toll of this internecine violence within France alone was approximately 4,000.[19] Subsequently, the FLN used this organization to obtain a "revolutionary tax" that FLN leader Ali Haroun estimates amounted to "80% of the [financial] resources of the rebellion"; this was partly done through extortion, in some instances by means of beatings and torture.[19][20]
After being involved in early repression in Constantine, Algeria as prefect, Maurice Papon was named head of the Parisian police on 14 March 1958. Tensions increased after 25 August 1958, when an FLN guerilla offensive in Paris killed three policemen on boulevard de l'Hôpital in the 13th arrondissement and another in front of the cartoucherie de Vincennes, leading to arrests and jailing of Algerians suspected of supporting the FLN. In 1960 Papon created the Auxiliary Police Force (FPA – Force de police auxiliaire), which was made up of 600 Algerians by Autumn 1960 and operated in areas densely populated by Algerians in Paris and its suburbs. While incompletely evidenced, the strongest presumption of torture by the FPA pertains to two locations in the 13th arrondissement.[21]
Further escalation occurred from August to October 1961 as the FLN resumed bombings against the French police, and killing 11 policemen and injured 17 (in Paris and its suburbs). This culminated on 17 October 1961, when the
An important issue within metropolitan France was public opinion, given that a substantial native population held a formally anticolonialist ideology (Communists, in particular) or was debating the war. The parties fought on this front too. The Prefecture of Police denied using torture or undue violence.[23] Conversely, informers reported an organized campaign to implicate the FPA such that FLN "leaders and carefully chosen militants from the workers' residence in Vitry - 45, rue Rondenay - have been tasked with declaring in cafés and public places that they have suffered exactions, were robbed of pocketbooks or watches[...], and were victims of violence by the 'Algerian police'."[24] A note diffused by the French arm of the FLN to its branches in September 1959 specifically focused on making claims of torture to influence the legal system:
For those of our brothers who will be arrested, it is important to specify what attitude they must adopt. Regardless of the way that the Algerian patriot is treated by police, he must in all circumstances, when presented to the
prosecutor state that he has been beaten and tortured... He must never hesitate to accuse the police of torture and beatings. This greatly influences the judge and courts.[25]
Amnesties
The first amnesty was passed in 1962 by President Charles de Gaulle, by decree, preempting a parliamentary discussion that might have denied immunity to men like General Paul Aussaresses.[11]
The second amnesty was enacted in 1968 by the
The OAS members were given amnesty by president François Mitterrand (PS), and a general amnesty for all war crimes was declared in 1982. Pierre Vidal-Naquet, among others, has qualified it as a "shame".[27]
Controversy during the war
The systematic use of torture created a national controversy which has had lasting effects on French and Algerian society. As early as 2 November 1954, Catholic writer
Two important officials, one civilian and another military, resigned because of the use of torture. The first was Paul Teitgen, former General Secretary of the Algiers Police, who had been himself tortured by the Gestapo. He resigned on 12 September 1957, in protest against the massive use of torture and extrajudicial killings. The other was General de Bollardière, who was the only army official to denounce the use of torture.[28] He was put in charge of military arrests and then had to resign.[2]
Torture was denounced during the war by many French left-wing intellectuals, members or not of the PCF, which maintained an
According to Henri Alleg, "in reality, the base of the problem was this unjust war itself. From the moment one starts a colonial war, i.e. a war to submit a people to one's will, one can issue all the laws one wants, but they will always be violated."[31]
2000s controversies
General Jacques Massu defended the use of torture in his 1972 book, The True Battle of Algiers (La vraie bataille d'Alger). He later declared to Le Monde in 2000 that "torture was not necessary and that we could have decided not to use it".[32]
Two days after the visit to France of Algerian president
General Aussaresses' 2000 confession and condemnation
General
According to Aussaresses, Massu followed on a daily basis the list of "interrogated" prisoners and of "accidents" which occurred during these torture sessions. Aussaresses said that it had been directly ordered by Guy Mollet's government. He notably declared:
I have given daily accounts of my activity to my direct superior, General Massu, who informed the Chief of Staff. It would have been possible for the political or military authority to put an end to it at any moment.[35][36]
He also wrote:
Concerning the use of torture, it was tolerated, if not recommended. François Mitterrand, the Minister of Justice, had, as a matter of fact, an emissary near [General] Massu in the person of judge Jean Bérard who covered us and knew exactly what was going on at night.[36][37]
However, historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet said, concerning Mitterrand, who was President of France from 1981 to 1995, that "when he was Justice Minister in 1956–57, during the Algerian War, he has been not as bad as had been claimed. He had under his charge only civil justice, and Reliquet (the public prosecutor in Algiers and who was a liberal [i.e. "liberal" in French usually refers to economic liberalism]) personally told me that he never received such strict instructions against torture as that which he had had from Mitterrand."[27]
Following Aussaresses' revelations, which proved that torture had been ordered by the highest levels of the French state hierarchy,
However, the Court of Cassation rejected the complaint which had been deposed against him on charges of torture, claiming they were amnestied.
Bigeard's attitude
General Marcel Bigeard, who had denied employing torture for forty years, finally also admitted that it had been used, although he claimed that he personally had not engaged in the practice. Bigeard, who qualified FLN activists as "savages", claimed torture was a "necessary evil."[40][41] To the contrary, General Jacques Massu denounced it, following Aussaresses' revelations, and before his death pronounced himself in favor of an official condemnation of the use of torture during the war.[42]
Bigeard's justification of torture has been criticized by various persons, among whom
In June 2000, Bigeard declared that he was based in
Jean-Marie Le Pen
See also
- Sétif and Guelma massacre
- Torture during the First Indochina War
- Paris massacre of 1961
- Jacques Massu, La vraie bataille d'Alger, 1972.
- Jean Lartéguy, Les centurions, 1959, and Les prétoriens, 1961.
- Maurice Audin
- The Battle of Algiers, Italian film which describes very well, according to Paul Aussaresses himself, the use of torture in Algeria
- French colonial empire
- Operation Condor and "Dirty War"
- Human rights in France
References
- ^ "[LDH-Toulon] les crimes de l'armée française en Algérie, par Pierre Vidal-Naquet". Archived from the original on 22 September 2008. Retrieved 22 July 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f COLONIALISM THROUGH THE SCHOOL BOOKS – The hidden history of the Algerian war Archived 22 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde diplomatique, April 2001 (in English and French)
- ^ a b c Branche, Raphaëlle (2017). The French Army and the Geneva Conventions during the Algerian War of Independence and After.
- ^ a b c d e f THE FRENCH ARMY AND TORTURE DURING THE ALGERIAN WAR (1954–1962) Archived 20 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Raphaëlle Branche, Université de Rennes, 18 November 2004
- Hélie Denoix de Saint Marc on the INAarchive website
- ^ Henri Pouillot, mon combat contre la torture Archived 20 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, El Watan, 1 November 2004.
- Ligue des droits de l'homme (LDH, Human Rights League), 10 January 2007. Archived 30 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c "Prise de tête Marcel Bigeard, un soldat propre ?". L'Humanité (in French). 24 June 2000. Archived from the original on 25 June 2005. Retrieved 15 February 2007.
- ^ Quoted by Argentine journalist Horacio Verbitsky in Breaking the silence: the Catholic Church and the "dirty war" Archived 22 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine, 28 July 2005, extract from El Silencio transl. in English by openDemocracy (p.3).
- ^ Torture in Algeria. The report that was to change everything Archived 25 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine, ICRC, 19 August 2005
- ^ a b c The torture of Algiers Archived 15 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Adam Shatz, The New York Review of Books, 21 November 2002 (mirrored by Algeria Watch NGO)
- ^ a b Text published in Vérité Liberté n°9 May 1961.
- ^ a b Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard and Sandrine Lemaire, TORTURE IN ALGERIA: PAST ACTS THAT HAUNT FRANCE – False memory Archived 26 December 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde diplomatique, June 2001 (in English and French)
- ^ Bancel, Blanchard and Lemaire (op.cit.) quote **Boucif Mekhaled, Chroniques d'un massacre. 8 May 1945. Sétif, Guelma, Kherrata, Syros, Paris, 1995 **Yves Benot, Massacres coloniaux, La Découverte, coll. 'Textes à l'appui', Paris, 1994
- Annie Rey-Goldzeiguer, Aux origines de la guerre d'Algérie, La Découverte, Paris, 2001.
- ^ Raphaëlle Branche, La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie, 1954–1962, Paris, Gallimard, 2001.
- ^ Mohamed Harbi, La guerre d'Algérie.
- ^ Benjamin Stora, La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie
- ^ French: "en métropole, la torture n'atteint pas la même ampleur qu'en Algérie. Elle n'en demeure pas moins sur les deux rives, une pratique tolérée par les autorités et une violence à laquelle les Algériens savent pouvoir s'attendre."
- ^ ISBN 978-2-02-009231-9(in French)
- ^ Guy Chambarlac, "Tueurs et porteurs de valise", in Enquêtes sur l'Histoire, volume 15 (Winter 1996). (in French)
- ^ Jean-Luc Einaudi and Maurice Rajsfus, 2001, op.cit., p.75
- ISBN 2-02-013547-7(in French)
- ISBN 2-84405-173-1
- ISSN 1631-0438.
- ISBN 978-2-262-00723-2.
- ^ Washington Post, Thursday 10 May 2001; Page A26
- ^ LDHHuman Rights League) (in French)
- Ligue des droits de l'homme(LDH) October 2001. (in French)
- ^ France confronts Algeria torture claims Archived 25 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 9 January 2001
- ^ Manifeste des 121, transl. in English Archived 20 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine.
- Ligue des droits de l'homme's website)
- ^ French: "la torture n'était pas indispensable et l'on aurait très bien pu s'en passer".
- ^ French veteran fined for excusing torture Archived 1 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 25 January 2002
- ^ L'accablante confession du général Aussaresses sur la torture en Algérie Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde, 3 May 2001. (in French)
- ^ French: "J'ai rendu compte tous les jours de mon activité à mon supérieur direct, le Général Massu, lequel informaitle commandant en chef. Il aurait été loisible à toute autorité politique ou militaire responsible d'y mettre fin."
- ^ a b c Human Rights Watch: le gouvernement français doit ordonner une enquête officielle. Archived 15 September 2003 at the Wayback Machine, Human Rights Watch. (in French)
- ^ French: "Quant à l'utilisation de la torture, elle était tolérée, sinon recommandée. François Mitterrand, le ministre de la Justice, avait, de fait, un émissaire auprès de [Général] Massu en la personne du juge Jean Bérard qui nous couvrait et qui avait une exacte connaissance de ce qui se passait la nuit."
- Ligue des droits de l'homme(LDH, Human Rights League), February 2002. (in French)
- LDH, 11 December 2004 (mirroring an Agence France-Pressenews cable) (in French)
- Archive-It
- ^ Torture Bigeard: " La presse en parle trop " Archived 24 June 2005 at the Wayback Machine, L'Humanité, 12 May 2000. (in French)
- ^ La torture pendant la guerre d’Algérie / 1954 – 1962 40 ans après, l’exigence de vérité Archived 9 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, AIDH.
- ^ GUERRE D'ALGÉRIE : Mgr Joseph Doré et Marc Lienhard réagissent aux déclarations du général Bigeard justifiant la pratique de la torture par l'armée française Archived 5 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde, 15 July 2000. (in French)
- ^ "" le témoignage de cette femme est un tissu de mensonges. Tout est faux, c'est une manoeuvre " - LeMonde.fr". Le Monde. Archived from the original on 19 February 2010.
- ^ Louisette Ighilahriz: " Massu ne pouvait plus nier l’évidence " Archived 25 June 2005 at the Wayback Machine, L'Humanité, 23 November 2000. (in French)
- ^ Le chef du FN oppose un "démenti formel" aux accusations de torture Archived 5 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde, 9 June 2002. (in French)
- ^ Le Pen et la torture, l'enquete du "Monde" validée par le tribunal Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde, 28 June 2003.
- ^ L'affaire du poignard du lieutenant Le Pen en Algérie Archived 13 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Le Monde, 17 May 2003. (in French)
- ^ "J'ai croisé Le Pen à la villa Sésini" (I crossed Le Pen in the Sesini Villa) Archived 4 September 2012 at archive.today, interview with Paul Aussaresses (who had argued in favor of the use of torture in Algeria), Le Monde, 4 June 2002.
- ^ "Un lourd silence", Le Monde, 5 May 2002. Archived 4 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Quand Le Pen travaillait 20 heures par jour" in L'Humanité (freely accessible), 2 May 2002. Archived 15 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "New Revelations on Le Pen, tortionary" Archived 22 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine in L'Humanité, 4 June 2002. [dead link]
- ^ "Le Pen attaque un élu du PCF en justice" Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, in L'Humanité, 4 April 1995. [dead link]
- ^ Jean Dufour: "Le Pen vient d'être débouté" Archived 22 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine, in L'Humanité, 26 July 1995. [dead link]
- ^ "Torture: Le Pen perd son procès en diffamation contre Le Monde"[permanent dead link], in L'Humanité, 27 June 2003.
Bibliography
French-language studies
- ISBN 2-234-05818-X.
- Bousselham, Hamid, "Torturés par Le Pen" sur Rebellyon.info de édité par Rahma co-édition Rahma-Anep.
- Branche, Raphaëlle "La torture et l'armée pendant la guerre d'Algérie", Gallimard septembre 2001.
- ISBN 978-2-01-279279-1(includes abstract by Raphaëlle Branche, "La torture pendant la guerre", p. 381–402)
- ISBN 978-2-213-62316-0
- Rey, Benoist (1999). Les égorgeurs : Guerre d'Algérie, chronique d'un appelé, 1959–1960. Collection Pages libres (in French). preface by Mato-Topé (21e éd. ed.). Paris: Éd. du Monde libertaire. )
- Vidal-Naquet, Pierre, L'Affaire Audin (1957); La Torture dans la République : essai d'histoire et de politique contemporaine (1954–1962), Minuit, 1972.
Abstracts and collective works
French-language
- Branche, Raphaëlle. "Justice et torture à Alger en 1957 : apports et limites d'un document" (en collaboration avec Sylvie Thénault) in Dominique Borne, Jean-Louis Nembrini et Jean-Pierre Rioux (dir.), Apprendre et enseigner la guerre d'Algérie et le Maghreb contemporain, Actes de l'université d'été de l'Education Nationale, CRDP de Versailles, 2002, p. 71–88. Available on-line.
- "La seconde commission de sauvegarde des droits et libertés individuels" in AFHJ, in La justice en Algérie 1830–1962, Paris, La Documentation Française, 2005, 366 p., p. 237–246.
- "Comment rétablir de la norme en temps d'exception. L’IGCI/CICDA pendant la guerre d'Algérie" in Laurent Feller (dir.), Contrôler les agents du pouvoir, Limoges, PULIM, 2004, p. 299–310.
- "La torture, l'armée et la République" in Université de tous les savoirs , dir. Yves Michaud, La guerre d'Algérie (1954–1962), Paris, Odile Jacob, 2004, p. 87–108 (Audio Conference)
- "Faire l'histoire de la violence d'État" in CNRSéditions, 2003, 288 p.
- "La torture pendant la guerre d'Algérie : un crime contre l'humanité ?" in Jean-Paul Jean and Denis Salas (dir.), Barbie, Touvier, Papon... Des procès pour mémoire, Autrement, 2002, p. 136–143.
- Branche, Raphaëlle. "Des viols pendant la guerre d'Algérie", Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire, n°75, juillet-septembre 2002, p. 123–132.
- "La lutte contre le terrorisme urbain" in Jean-Charles Jauffret et Maurice Vaïsse (dir.), Militaires et guérilla dans la guerre d'Algérie, Bruxelles, Complexe, 2001, 561 p., p. 469–487.
- "La commission de sauvegarde des droits et libertés individuels pendant la guerre d'Algérie. Chronique d'un échec annoncé ?", Vingtième Siècle. Revue d'histoire, n°62, avril-juin 1999, p. 14–29.
- "La seconde commission de sauvegarde des droits et libertés individuels" in AFHJ, in La justice en Algérie 1830–1962, Paris,
Other languages
- Aussaresses, General Paul. The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957. (New York: Enigma Books, 2010) ISBN 978-1-929631-30-8.
- Branche, Raphaëlle. "Torture and the border of humanity" (in collaboration with Françoise Sironi), International Social Science Journal, n°174, December 2002, p. 539–548.
- "Campaign against torture" and "Algerian War" in John Merriman and Jay Winter (eds.), Encyclopedy of Europe, 1914–2004, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons.
- "French Soldiers in Algeria, 1954–1962 : Denouncing Torture during the War and Forty Years Later", international symposium organized by the University of Maryland and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem on "Soldier Testimony and Human Rights", Jerusalem, February 2004.
- "The State, Historians and Memories: The Algerian War in France, 1992–2002", conference at the international symposium "Contemporary Historians and the Public Use of History", Södertörn University College, Stockholm, August 2002 (published in 2006)
- "The violations of the law during the French-Algerian War" in Adam Jones (eds), Genocide, War Crimes, and the West, Zed Books, 2004, p. 134–145 (also available in German)
- ISBN 978-0-691-13135-1).
- Rejali, Darius, Torture and Democracy, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007.
Contemporary works
- ISBN 2-7073-0175-2).
- Trinquier, Roger. Modern Warfare: A French View of Counterinsurgency (1961).
- Vian, Boris, The Deserter (translated in many languages; censored during the war[1])
Sources
- THE FRENCH ARMY AND TORTURE DURING THE ALGERIAN WAR (1954–1962), Raphaëlle Branche, Université de Rennes, 18 November 2004
- COLONIALISM THROUGH THE SCHOOL BOOKS – The hidden history of the Algerian war, Le Monde diplomatique, April 2001 (in English and French)
- Torture in Algeria. The report that was to change everything, ICRC, 19 August 2005
- Video Ina - Archives pour tous, Archived from the original on 6 Oct 2022, film INAarchive website
Further reading
- Collard, Melanie (2018). Torture as State Crime: A Criminological Analysis of the Transnational Institutional Torturer. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-45611-9.
- Horne, Alistair. (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962. Viking Press.
- McDougall, James. (2017). A History of Algeria. Cambridge University Press.
- McDougall, James. (2006). History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria. Cambridge University Press.
- Maran, Rita (1989). Torture: The Role of Ideology in the French–Algerian War. New York, NY: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-130-80785-4.
External links
- The Torture of Algiers, Adam Shatz, The New York Review of Books – 21 November 2002
- Branche, Raphaëlle. 7 March 2002, Audio Conference at the Université de tous les savoirs (UTLS) "La torture, l’armée et la République"