Toruń
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Toruń
Toruń is one of the oldest cities in Poland; it was first settled in the 8th century and in 1233 was expanded by the
In the Early Modern period, Toruń was a
Toruń is renowned for its
History
Middle Ages
The first settlement in the vicinity of Toruń is dated by
In spring 1231 the
In the 14th century, papal verdicts ordered the restoration of the area to Poland, however, the Teutonic Knights did not comply and continued to occupy the region.[17] The city was recaptured by Poland in 1410 during the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War however, after the First Peace of Thorn was signed in the city in February 1411, the city fell back to the Teutonic Order. In 1411, the city left the Hanseatic League. In the 1420s, Polish King Władysław II Jagiełło built the Dybów Castle, located in present-day left-bank Toruń, which he visited numerous times.[18] During the next big Polish–Teutonic War, Dybów Castle was occupied by the Teutonic Knights from 1431 to 1435.[18]
In 1440, the gentry of Toruń co-founded the
Early modern period
In 1473,
In 1557, during the
During the
Late modern period (from 1793)
After the
World War II
During World War II, Germany occupied the city from 7 September 1939 to 1 February 1945. Einsatzkommando 16 entered the city to commit various crimes against Poles.[33] Under German occupation, local people were subjected to arrests, expulsions, slave labor, deportations to concentration camps and executions, especially the Polish elites as part of the Intelligenzaktion.
A group of Polish railwaymen and policemen from Toruń were murdered by the German
During the occupation, Germany established and operated Stalag XX-A prisoner-of-war camp in the city, with multiple forced labour subcamps in the region, in which Polish, British, French, Australian and Soviet POWs were held. From 1940 to 1943, in the northern part of the city the German transit camp Umsiedlungslager Thorn for Poles expelled from Toruń and the surrounding area, became infamous for inhuman sanitary conditions.[40] Over 12,000 Poles passed through the camp, and around 1,000 died there, including about 400 children.[40] From 1941 to 1945, a German forced labour camp was located in the city.[41] In the spring of 1942, the Germans murdered 30 Polish scouts aged 13–16 in Fort VII.[42]
While the city's population suffered many atrocities, as described, there were no battles or bombings that damaged its buildings. Thus, the city avoided damage during both World Wars, and retained its historic architecture,ranging from Gothic through Renaissance and Baroque to 19th and 20th century styles.
Sights
Listed on the UNESCO list of
Gothic architecture
Toruń has the largest number of preserved Gothic houses in Poland, many with Gothic wall paintings or wood-beam ceilings from the 16th to the 18th centuries.
- The Cathedral of SS. John the Evangelist and John the Baptist, an aisled hall church built in the 14th century and extended in the 15th century; outstanding Gothic sculptures and paintings inside (Moses, St. Mary Magdalene, gravestone of Johann von Soest), Renaissance and Baroque epitaphs and altars (among them the epitaph of Copernicus from 1580), as well as the Tuba Dei, the largest medieval church bellin Poland and one of the largest in Europe
- St. Mary's church, a formerly Franciscan aisled hall built in the 14th century
- St. James the Greater's church (often mistakenly called St Jacob's), a basilica from the 14th century, with monumental wall paintings and Gothic stalls
- The Toruń Regional Museumor Muzeum Okręgowe in Polish)
- City fortifications, begun in the 13th century, extended between the 14th and 15th centuries, mostly demolished in the 19th century, but partially preserved with a few city gates and watchtowers (among them the so-called Leaning Tower) from the Vistula side. See also: Toruń Fortress
- A 15th-century Gothic house (now a museum) where Copernicus was reputedly born
- Ruins of 13th-century Teutonic Knights' castle
- House at the sign of the Star (Filip Callimachus, then rebuilt in the 16th century and in 1697, with a richly decorated stucco façade and wooden spiral stairs.
Toruń, unlike many other historic cities in Poland, escaped substantial destruction in World War II. Particularly left intact was the Old Town, all of whose important architectural monuments are originals, not reconstructions.
Major renovation projects have been undertaken in recent years to improve the condition and external presentation of the Old Town. Besides the renovation of various buildings, projects such as the reconstruction of the pavement of the streets and squares (reversing them to their historical appearance), and the introduction of new plants, trees and objects of 'small architecture', are underway.
Numerous buildings and other constructions, including the city walls along the boulevard, are illuminated at night, creating an impressive effect - probably unique among Polish cities with respect to the size of Toruń's Old Town and the scale of the illumination project itself.
Toruń is also home to the Zoo and Botanical Garden opened in 1965 and 1797 respectively and is one of the city's popular tourist attractions.
Districts
Toruń is divided into 24 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government. The Districts include: Barbarka, Bielany, Bielawy, Bydgoskie Przedmieście, Chełmińskie Przedmieście, Czerniewice, Glinki, Grębocin nad Strugą, Jakubskie Przedmieście, Kaszczorek, Katarzynka, Koniuchy, Mokre, Na Skarpie, Piaski, Podgórz, Rubinkowo, Rudak, Rybaki, Stare Miasto (Old Town), Starotoruńskie Przedmieście, Stawki, Winnica, Wrzosy.
Symbols
The colors of Toruń are white and blue in the horizontal arrangement, white top, blue bottom, equal in size. The flag of the city of Toruń is a bipartite sheet. The upper field is white, the lower field is blue. If the flag is hung vertically, the upper edge of the flag must be on the left.[43]
The flag with the coat of arms is also in use. The ratio of the height of the coat of arms to the width of the flag is 1:2.[44]
Climate
The climate can be described as humid continental (Köppen: Dfb) if the isotherm of 0 °C (32 °F) is used or an oceanic climate (Cfb) if the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm is adopted. Back in 1930s, the city passed close to the original boundary and dividing line of climates C and D groups in the north–south direction proposed by climatologist Wladimir Köppen.[45] Toruń is in the transition between the milder climates of the west and north of the Poland and the more extreme ones like the south (warmer summer) and the east (colder winter). It is not much different from the climates of more southerly Kraków[46] and easterly Warsaw,[47] though it has slightly milder winters and more moderate summers.[48][49]
Being close to definitely continental climates, it has a high variability caused by the contact of eastern continental air masses and western oceanic ones. This is influenced by the geographical location of the city – the Toruń Basin to the south, and the Vistula Valley to the north.[50]
Climate data for Toruń (St. Joseph), elevation: 69 m, 1991-2020 normals, extremes 1951–present | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 12.8 (55.0) |
17.1 (62.8) |
23.4 (74.1) |
31.2 (88.2) |
32.3 (90.1) |
36.6 (97.9) |
38.2 (100.8) |
37.5 (99.5) |
35.1 (95.2) |
28.2 (82.8) |
19.9 (67.8) |
15.6 (60.1) |
38.2 (100.8) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 1.4 (34.5) |
3.2 (37.8) |
7.6 (45.7) |
14.6 (58.3) |
19.8 (67.6) |
23.0 (73.4) |
25.1 (77.2) |
24.9 (76.8) |
19.3 (66.7) |
13.1 (55.6) |
6.6 (43.9) |
2.7 (36.9) |
13.4 (56.1) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | −1.1 (30.0) |
−0.1 (31.8) |
3.2 (37.8) |
8.8 (47.8) |
13.8 (56.8) |
17.1 (62.8) |
19.3 (66.7) |
18.9 (66.0) |
13.9 (57.0) |
8.7 (47.7) |
4.0 (39.2) |
0.4 (32.7) |
8.9 (48.0) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −3.8 (25.2) |
−3.1 (26.4) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
3.1 (37.6) |
7.8 (46.0) |
11.3 (52.3) |
13.6 (56.5) |
13.2 (55.8) |
9.1 (48.4) |
5.0 (41.0) |
1.5 (34.7) |
−2.1 (28.2) |
4.6 (40.3) |
Record low °C (°F) | −32.4 (−26.3) |
−29.3 (−20.7) |
−26.5 (−15.7) |
−8.6 (16.5) |
−7.2 (19.0) |
−1.4 (29.5) |
3.1 (37.6) |
1.4 (34.5) |
−3.7 (25.3) |
−10.1 (13.8) |
−22.8 (−9.0) |
−24.5 (−12.1) |
−32.4 (−26.3) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 32.7 (1.29) |
27.3 (1.07) |
32.2 (1.27) |
29.6 (1.17) |
51.2 (2.02) |
55.7 (2.19) |
90.6 (3.57) |
63.9 (2.52) |
55.8 (2.20) |
37.9 (1.49) |
33.5 (1.32) |
38.5 (1.52) |
548.8 (21.61) |
Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) | 6.1 (2.4) |
5.7 (2.2) |
3.0 (1.2) |
1.1 (0.4) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
1.5 (0.6) |
4.2 (1.7) |
6.1 (2.4) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 16.07 | 13.30 | 13.33 | 10.73 | 12.83 | 13.47 | 13.63 | 12.53 | 11.63 | 12.73 | 14.27 | 16.27 | 160.80 |
Average snowy days (≥ 0 cm) | 14.8 | 12.1 | 5.4 | 0.5 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.3 | 9.1 | 44.2 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
87.1 | 83.2 | 76.7 | 68.3 | 67.8 | 68.9 | 70.2 | 70.7 | 77.8 | 83.1 | 89.0 | 88.9 | 77.6 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 44.7 | 68.2 | 124.0 | 196.1 | 244.0 | 237.4 | 239.2 | 233.5 | 157.3 | 106.7 | 44.2 | 34.9 | 1,730.1 |
Source 1: Institute of Meteorology and Water Management[51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Meteomodel.pl (records, relative humidity 1991–2020)[59][60][61] |
Demographics
Year | Pop. | ±% |
---|---|---|
1950 | 75,734 | — |
1960 | 104,800 | +38.4% |
1970 | 129,400 | +23.5% |
1980 | 174,400 | +34.8% |
1990 | 199,600 | +14.4% |
2000 | 210,194 | +5.3% |
2010 | 205,312 | −2.3% |
2020 | 198,613 | −3.3% |
source [62] |
The most recent statistics show a decrease in the population of the city, from 211,169 in 2001 (highest) to 202,562 in 2018. Among the demographic trends influencing this decline, are: suburbanisation, migration to larger urban centres, and wider trends observed in the whole of Poland such as general population decline, slowed down by immigration in 2017. The birth rate in the city in 2017 was 0.75. Low birthrates have been consistent in the city for the first two decades of 21st Century.
The official forecasts from Statistics Poland state that by 2050 the city population will have declined to 157,949.
Inside the city itself, most of the population is concentrated on the right (northern) bank of the Vistula river. Two of the most densely populated areas are Rubinkowo and Na Skarpie, housing projects built mostly in the 1970s and 1980s, located between the central and easternmost districts; their total population is about 70,000.
The
Transport
The transport network in the city has undergone major development in recent years. The partial completion of ring road (East and South), the completion of the second bridge (2013) and various road, and cycling lane improvements, including construction of Trasa Średnicowa, have decidedly improved the traffic in the city. However, noise barriers that have been erected along the new or refurbished roads have been criticised as not conducive to a beautiful urban landscape. The extensive roadworks have also drawn attention to the declining population numbers, casting doubt that the city might over-delivered for the future number of road users, as the demographic trends forecast from Statistics Poland predicts a reduction of population by almost 1/4 by year 2050.[63]
The city's public transport system comprises five tram lines and about 40 bus routes, covering the city and some of the neighboring communities.
Toruń is situated at a major road junction, one of the most important in Poland. The
With three main railway stations (
.The rail connection with
Since September 2008, the "one-ticket" solution has been introduced also as regards a rail connection with Włocławek, as a "regional ticket". The same is planned for connection with Grudziądz.
Two bus depots serve to connect the city with other towns and cities in Poland.
As of 2008[update], a
Economy
Although a medium-sized city, Toruń is the site of the headquarters of some of the largest companies in Poland, or at least of their subsidiaries. The official unemployment rate, as of September 2008[update], is 5.4%.
In 2006, construction of new plants owned by
Thanks to its architectural heritage Toruń is visited by more than 1.5 million tourists a year (1.6 million in 2007). This makes tourism an important branch of the local economy, although time spent in the city by individual tourists or the number of hotels, which can serve them, are still not considered satisfactory. Major investments in renovation of the city's monuments, building new hotels (including high-standard ones), improvement in promotion, as well as launching new cultural and scientific events and facilities, give very good prospects for Toruń's tourism.
In recent years Toruń has been a site of intense building construction investments, mainly residential and in its transportation network. The latter has been possible partly due to the use of European Union funds assigned for new member states. Toruń city county generates by far the highest number of new dwellings built each year among all Kuyavian-Pomeranian counties, both relative to its population as well as in absolute values. It has led to almost complete rebuilding of some districts. As of 2008[update], many major constructions are either under development or are to be launched soon - the value of some of them exceeding 100 million euros. They include a new speedway stadium, major shopping and entertainment centres, a commercial complex popularly called a "New Centre of Toruń", a music theater, a centre of contemporary art, hotels, office buildings, facilities for the
Culture
Toruń has two drama theatres (Teatr im. Wilama Horzycy with three stages and Teatr Wiczy), two children's theatres (
A building called Baj Pomorski has recently been completely reconstructed. It is now one of the most modern cultural facilities in the city, with its front elevation in the shape of a gigantic chest of drawers. It is located at the south-east edge of the Old Town. Toruń has two cinemas including a Cinema City, which has over 2,000 seats.
Over ten major museums document the history of Toruń and the region. Among others, the "House of Kopernik" and the accompanying museum commemorate Nicolaus Copernicus and his revolutionary work, the university museum reveals the history of the city's academic past.
The Tony Halik Travelers' Museum (Muzeum Podróżników im. Tony Halika) was established in 2003 after Elżbieta Dzikowska donated to citizens of Toruń a collection of objects from various countries and cultures following the death of her husband, famous explorer and writer, Toruń native, Tony Halik. It is managed by the District Museum in Toruń.
The Centre of Contemporary Art (Centrum Sztuki Współczesnej - CSW) opened in June 2008 and is one of the most important cultural facilities of this kind in Poland. The modern building is located in the very centre of the city, adjacent to the Old Town. The Toruń Symphonic Orchestra (formerly the Toruń Chamber Orchestra) is well-rooted in the Toruń cultural landscape.
Toruń is home to a
Toruń is well known for
Toruń is a center of conservative Roman Catholic culture.
The 12999 Toruń asteroid is named after the city.
Education
Over thirty elementary and primary schools and over ten high schools make up the educational base of Toruń. Besides these, students can also attend a handful of private schools.
The largest institution of higher education in Toruń,
Other public institutions of higher education:
- Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne (a section of the Theological Faculty of the Nicolaus Copernicus University)
- The Teacher Training College - Nauczycielskie Kolegium Języków Obcych (affiliated to the Nicolaus Copernicus University)
- College of Fashion (Kolegium Mody)
- University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn - Faculty of Geodesy and Land Management Department in Toruń
- College of Social Work - Kolegium Pracowników Służb Społecznych
- University of Gdańsk - College of Language
There are also a number of private higher education facilities:
- WSB Merito Universities - WSB Merito University in Toruń[66]
- The University of Social & Medial Culture in Toruń - Wyższa Szkoła Kultury Społecznej i Medialnej (affiliate to the Radio Maryja)
- Toruńska Szkoła Wyższa
- Wyższa Szkoła Filologii Hebrajskiej (Higher School of Hebrew Philology)
- Toruń School of Entrepreneurship - Toruńska Wyższa Szkoła Przedsiębiorczości
Also located in Toruń is one of the oldest
Healthcare
Six hospitals of various specializations provide medical service for Toruń itself, its surrounding area and to the region in general. The two largest of these hospitals, recently run by the voivodeship, are to be taken over by Nicolaus Copernicus University and run as its clinical units. At least one of them is to change its status in 2008, with the formal procedures being very advanced.
In addition, there are a number of other healthcare facilities in the city.
Media
- Press
- daily newspapers: Nasz Dziennik, Rzeczpospolita, Gazeta Wyborcza Toruń, Gazeta Pomorska, Nowości, Metro
- Weekly magazines: Niedziela, City Toruń, Teraz Toruń
- Other: Undergrunt, Immuniet, Ilustrator, Poza Toruń
- Radio Stations:
- Polskie Radio Pomorza i Kujaw,
- Radio ESKA – which plays international hits, along with Polish music
- Radio GRA
- Radio ZET Gold
- Radio Sfera
- Radio WAWA
- RMF FM
- Radio Maryja – a radio station that broadcasts religious observances such as mass and prayer in Polish
- TV Stations:
- TVN/TVN24– regional office
- TVP Info – Oddział w Bydgoszczy, Redakcja Terenowa w Toruniu,[67]
- Telewizja Trwam
- Podróże TV
- Telewizja Kablowa Toruń
- Telewizja TAT Studio Region
- Telewizja Petrus
Sports
- Speedway Ekstraliga, four times Polish Champions, whose home ground is the MotoArena Toruń
- KS Toruń HSA – ice hockey club which plays in the top hockey league in Poland, 1968 runners-up, 2005 Polish Cup winner
- Elana Toruń – football team, competing in the 4th division in Poland, whose home ground is the Municipal Stadium
- Pomorzanin Toruń – field hockey (premier league in Poland), football (4th division in Poland), boxing
- Twarde Pierniki Polski Cukier Toruń – basketball club, which is competing in the Polish Basketball League (men premier league in Poland), two times runners-up, whose home ground is the Arena Toruń
- Energa Katarzynki Toruń – basketball club, competing in the Basket Liga Kobiet(women premier league in Poland), finishing 3rd in 2010, 2012, 2015, whose home ground is the Arena Toruń
- Angels Toruń – American football – Polish American Football League First Division
- Nestle-Pacyfic – cycling
- Toruński Klub Bowlingowy – bowling
- Budowlani Toruń – volleyball (women premier league in Poland), whose home ground is the Arena Toruń
- UKS Budowlanka Toruń – volleyball
- Toruński KS – defunct Polish football club, co-founders of the Polish football league
- The E11 European long distance path for hikers passes through Toruń
Notable people
Notable residents of Toruń include:
- Filippo Buonaccorsi (1437–1496), Italian humanist, writer, and diplomat
- Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543), Renaissance polymath and astronomer.[68]
- Anna Vasa of Sweden (1568–1625), Polish and Swedish princess
- Bartholomeus Strobel (1591–1650), Baroque painter
- Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring (1755–1830), German physician and anatomist
- Samuel Linde (1771–1847), linguist, librarian, and lexicographer of the Polish language
- Fryderyk Skarbek (1792–1866), economist, novelist, historian, social activist, administrator, politician, and penologist
- Zvi Hirsch Kalischer (1795–1874), Orthodox rabbi
- Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849), composer and virtuoso pianist of the Romantic period.[69]
- Julie Wolfthorn (1864–1944), German painter
- Władysław Dziewulski (1878–1962), astronomer and mathematician.
- Hermann Rauschning (1887–1982), German conservative reactionary
- Roman Ingarden (1893–1970), philosopher
- Lotte Jacobi (1896–1990), American portrait photographer and photojournalist
- Elżbieta Zawacka (1909–2009), university professor, scouting instructor, SOE agent, and a freedom fighter during World War II
- Tony Halik (1921–1998), film operator, documentary filmmaker, travel writer, traveller, explorer, and polyglot
- Kazimierz Serocki (1922–1981), composer
- Bodo Tümmler (born 1943), German middle-distance runner
- Aleksander Wolszczan (born 1946), astronomer
- Bogusław Linda (born 1952), actor
- Michał Zaleski (born 1952), politician
- Jadwiga Rappé (born 1952), operatic contralto
- Waldemar Fydrych (born 1953), Polish activist, leader of the Orange Alternativemovement
- Jerzy Wenderlich (born 1954), politician
- Joanna Scheuring-Wielgus (born 1972), politician
- Piotr Głowacki (born 1980), actor
- Tomasz Wasilewski (born 1980), film director and screenwriter
- Olga Bołądź (born 1984), actress
- Consul General of the Republic of Poland in New York City[70]
Sport
- Teresa Weyna (born 1950), ice dancer
- Tomasz Warczachowski (born 1974), footballer
- Michał Gołaś (born 1984), road bicycle racer
- Adam Waczyński (born 1989), basketball player
- Michał Kwiatkowski (born 1990), road bicycle racer
- Katarzyna Zillmann (born 1995), rower
- Jakub Piotrowski (born 1997), footballer
International relations
Honouring Toruń's sister relationship with
The Ślimak Getyński is one of the lanes connecting Piłsudski Bridge / John Paul II Avenue with Philadelphia Boulevard at their downtown interchange. It honours the relationship with Göttingen, its name derived from the street's half-circular shape (Polish word ślimak meaning "snail").
Twin towns – Sister cities
Toruń is
|
Former twin towns:
- Russian invasion of Ukraine)[74]
Gallery
-
Old Town Hall
-
House Under the Star
-
Holy Spirit Church
-
Artus Court
-
Caesar's Arch Tenement House
-
Brama Klasztorna (Convent Gate)
-
Saint Catherine of Alexandria church
-
Historic tenement houses along Warszawska Street
-
Former Police Station Building
-
Main Post Office
-
Szeroka Street
-
Memorial to the victims of Intelligenzaktion Pommern
-
Collegium Maius of the Nicolaus Copernicus University
-
City panorama
-
Old granaries in the Old Town
-
Diocesan Museum
-
Tony Halik Travelers' Museum
-
Gen. Elżbieta Zawacka Bridge
-
Vistula River
-
Historic prison building
-
Mostowa Gate
-
St. Mary's Church
In popular culture
- Thorn (Toruń) is one of the starting towns of the State of the Teutonic Order in the turn-based strategy game Medieval II: Total War: Kingdoms.[75]
- Toruń also makes an appearance in the alternate history RTS Command and Conquer: Red Alert; in the Soviet campaign of the game, the player is tasked on liquidating the city's inhabitants after the Soviet leadership discover resistance fighters had aided escaped test subjects.
See also
- Tourism in Poland
- Gingerbread Museum
Notes
References
- ^ a b "Local Data Bank". Statistics Poland. Retrieved 21 July 2022. Data for territorial unit 0463000.
- ^ "Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by NUTS 3 regions". ec.europa.eu.
- ^ "Toruń". Lexico UK English Dictionary UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 26 August 2022.
- ^ "Torun". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ "Toruń". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ "Toruń". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ "History of Toruń". www.torun.pl. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
- ^ Maria Bogucka, Miasto i mieszczanin w społeczeństwie Polski nowożytnej XVI-XVIII w., Warsaw 2009
- ^ a b "Toruń stolicą Polski? Przez trzy tygodnie". Interia Nowa Historia (in Polish). Retrieved 4 October 2019.
- ^ Development, JW Web. "VisitTorun: Torun Guide - Home". Retrieved 7 April 2017.
- ^ "Jakość życia w polskich miastach - ranking - Urbnews.pl". 2 December 2015. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
- ^ Hypothetical reconstruction of a Lusatian culture settlement, built using bronze age tools: Wola Radziszowska, Poland, part of a study by scientists from the Jagiellonian University's Institute of Archaeology.
- ^ Encyklopedia Powszechna PWN Warsaw 1976
- ^ "Krzyżacy - założyciele Torunia" (Teutonic Knights — the founders of Thorn). (Internet Archive) Urząd Miasta Torunia. "The foundation charter for Thorn was signed on 28 December 1233 by the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order Hermann von Salza and the National Master for Prussia and the Slavonic Lands Hermann Balka. In that way Thorn was founded by the Teutonic Order and managed by the Knights until 1454." Retrieved 16 June 2013.
- ^ Max Töppen Historisch-comparative Geographie von Preussen: Nach den Quellen, namentlich auch archivalischen, J. Perthes, 1858; PDF
- ^ Norman Davies (2005). God's Playground A History of Poland Volume 1: The Origins to 1795. Oxford University Press. p. 65.
- ^ "wojny polsko-krzyżackie". Encyklopedia PWN (in Polish). Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ a b c Grzeszkiewicz-Kotlewska, Lidia (2002). "Zamek Władysława Jagiełły w Dybowie w świetle badań archeologicznych w latach 1998-2001". Rocznik Toruński (in Polish). 29. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika: 19.
- ^ F. Kiryk, J. Ryś, Wielka Historia polski, t. II, 1320–1506, Kraków 1997, pp. 160–161.
- ^ "Ruiny Zamku Krzyżackiego" [Remnants of the Teutonic Castle]. Toruńskie Serwisy Miejskie. Urząd Miasta Torunia. 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
- ^ Urząd Miasta Torunia (2012). "Krzyżacy - założyciele Torunia" [Teutonic Knights – the founders of town]. Gotyk na dotyk. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ Górski, Karol (1949). Związek Pruski i poddanie się Prus Polsce: zbiór tekstów źródłowych (in Polish). Poznań: Instytut Zachodni. pp. 71–72.
- ^ Górski, p. 76-77
- ^ Górski, p. 63
- ^ Grzeszkiewicz-Kotlewska, p. 19-20
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External links
- Municipal website
- Torun travel guide from Wikivoyage