Toxaphene

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Toxaphene
Names
Other names
Chlorocamphene, Octachlorocamphene, Polychlorocamphene, Chlorinated camphene
Identifiers
3D model (
JSmol
)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
ECHA InfoCard
 100.029.348 Edit this at Wikidata
EC Number
  • 232-283-3
KEGG
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C10H10Cl8/c1-7(2)3(6(13)14)8(15)4(11)5(12)9(7,16)10(8,17)18/h3-6H,1-2H3
    Key: HRBUJQUHXGOSQW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
  • C=C1C(C2(C(C(C1(C2(Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)Cl)(CCl)CCl
Properties
Density 1.65 g/cm3
Melting point 65 to 90 °C (149 to 194 °F; 338 to 363 K)
Boiling point decomposition at 155 °C (311 °F; 428 K)
0.0003% (20°C)[1]
Vapor pressure 0.4 mmHg (25°C)[1]
Hazards
GHS labelling:
GHS06: ToxicGHS08: Health hazardGHS09: Environmental hazard
Danger
H301, H312, H315, H335, H351, H410
P261, P273, P280, P301+P310, P501
Flash point noncombustible[1]
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
75 mg/kg (oral, rabbit)
112 mg/kg (oral, mouse)
250 mg/kg (oral, guinea pig)
50 mg/kg (oral, rat)[2]
2000 mg/m3 (mouse, 2 hr)[2]
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)
 TWA 0.5 mg/m3 [skin][1]
REL (Recommended)
 Ca [skin][1]
IDLH
(Immediate danger)
 200 mg/m3[1]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)

Toxaphene was an insecticide used primarily for cotton in the southern United States during the late 1960s and the 1970s.[3][4] Toxaphene is a mixture of over 670 different chemicals and is produced by reacting chlorine gas with camphene.[3][5] It can be most commonly found as a yellow to amber waxy solid.[3]

Toxaphene was banned in the United States in 1990 and was banned globally by the 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.[3][6] It is a very persistent chemical that can remain in the environment for 1–14 years without degrading, particularly in the soil.[7]

Testing performed on animals, mostly

kidneys.[8]

Toxaphene has been shown to cause adverse health effects in

humans, though this has not yet been proven.[3]

Composition

Toxaphene is a synthetic

aromatic hydrocarbons and readily soluble in aliphatic organic solvents. It is stable at room temperature and pressure.[3] It is volatile enough to be transported for long distances through the atmosphere.[11][12]

Applications

Advertisements for Toxaphene were seen in agricultural periodicals such as Farm Journal[13] as early as 1950.[13] Toxaphene was primarily used as a

soybeans, and less than 1% on sorghum.[4]

The first recorded usage of toxaphene was in 1966 in the United States, [citation needed] and by the early to mid 1970s, toxaphene was the United States' most heavily used pesticide. Over 34 million pounds of toxaphene were used annually from 1966 to 1976. As a result of Environmental Protection Agency restrictions, annual toxaphene usage fell to 6.6 million pounds in 1982. In 1990, the EPA banned all usage of toxaphene in the United States.[4] Toxaphene is still used in countries outside the United States but much of this usage has been undocumented.[3] Between 1970 and 1995, global usage of toxaphene was estimated to be 670 million kilograms (1.5 billion pounds).[4]

Production

Toxaphene was first produced in the United States in 1947 although it was not heavily used until 1966. By 1975, toxaphene production reached its peak at 59.4 million pounds annually. Production decreased more than 90% from this value by 1982 due to Environmental Protection Agency restrictions. Overall, an estimated 234,000 metric tons (over 500 million pounds) have been produced in the United States. Between 25% and 35% of the toxaphene produced in the United States has been exported. There are currently 11 toxaphene suppliers worldwide.[4]

Environmental effects

When released into the environment, toxaphene can be quite persistent and exists in the

streams.[3] It can also be present in many parts of the world where it was never used because toxaphene is able to evaporate and travel long distances through air currents. Toxaphene can eventually be degraded, through dechlorination, in the air using sunlight to break it down. The degradation of toxaphene usually occurs under aerobic conditions.[6]
The levels of toxaphene have decreased since its ban. However, due to its persistence, it can still be found in the environment today.

Exposure

The three main paths of exposure to toxaphene are ingestion, inhalation, and absorption. For humans, the main source of toxaphene exposure is through ingested seafood.[6] When toxaphene enters the body, it usually accumulates in fatty tissues. It is broken down through dechlorination and oxidation in the liver, and the byproducts are eliminated through feces.[6]

People that live near an area that has high toxaphene contamination are at high risk to toxaphene exposure through inhalation of contaminated air or direct skin contact with contaminated soil or water. Eating large quantities of fish on a daily basis also increases susceptibility to toxaphene exposure.[3] Finally, exposure is rare, yet possible through drinking water when contaminated by toxaphene runoff from the soil.[3] However, toxaphene has been rarely seen at high levels in drinking water due to toxaphene's high levels of insolubility in water.[8]

beluga whales in the Arctic were found to have unhealthy and toxic levels of toxaphene.[6]

Health effects

In humans

When inhaled or ingested, sufficient quantities of toxaphene can damage the

respiratory failure resulting from seizures.[15] Chronic inhalation exposure in humans results in reversible respiratory toxicity.[8]

A study conducted between 1954 and 1972 of male agricultural workers and

bronchial carcinoma in the test group than in the unexposed general population. However, toxaphene may not have been the main pesticide responsible for tumor production.[15] Tests on lab animals show that toxaphene causes liver and kidney cancer, so the EPA has classified it as a Group B2 carcinogen, meaning it is a probable human carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified it as a Group 2B carcinogen.[8]

Toxaphene can be detected in blood, urine, breast milk, and body tissues if a person has been exposed to high levels, but it is removed from the body quickly, so detection has to occur within several days of exposure.[8]

It is not known whether toxaphene can affect reproduction in humans.[3]

In animals

Toxaphene was used to treat mange in cattle in California in the 1970s and there were reports of cattle deaths following the toxaphene treatment.[16]

Chronic oral exposure in animals affects the liver, the kidney, the spleen, the adrenal and thyroid glands, the central nervous system, and the immune system.[8] Toxaphene stimulates the central nervous system by antagonizing neurons leading to hyperpolarization of neurons and increased neuronal activity.[15]

Regulations

Toxaphene has been found on at least 68 of the 1,699

U.S. Virgin Islands. All uses of toxaphene were cancelled in the U.S. in 1990.[8]

Toxaphene has been banned in 37 countries, including Austria, Belize, Brazil, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Egypt, the EU, India, Ireland, Kenya, Korea, Mexico, Panama, Singapore, Thailand and Tonga. Its use has been severely restricted in 11 other countries, including Argentina, Columbia, Dominica, Honduras, Nicaragua, Pakistan, South Africa, Turkey, and Venezuela.[17]

In the Stockholm Convention on POPs, which came into effect on 17 May 2004, twelve POPs were listed to be eliminated or their production and use restricted. The OCPs or pesticide-POPs identified on this list have been termed the "dirty dozen" and include aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, and toxaphene.[6][18]

The EPA has determined that lifetime exposure to 0.01 milligrams per liter of toxaphene in the drinking water is not expected to cause any adverse noncancer effects if the only source of exposure is drinking water,

United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) uses the same level for the maximum level permissible in bottled water.[4]

The FDA has determined that the concentration of toxaphene in bottled drinking water should not exceed 0.003 milligrams per liter.[3]

The

hazardous material and has special requirements for marking, labeling, and transporting the material.[4]

It is classified as an

extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities.[19]

Trade names

Trade names and synonyms include Chlorinated camphene, Octachlorocamphene, Camphochlor, Agricide Maggot Killer, Alltex, Allotox, Crestoxo, Compound 3956, Estonox, Fasco-Terpene, Geniphene, Hercules 3956, M5055, Melipax, Motox, Penphene, Phenacide, Phenatox, Strobane-T, Toxadust, Toxakil, Vertac 90%, Toxon 63, Attac, Anatox, Royal Brand Bean Tox 82, Cotton Tox MP82, Security Tox-Sol-6, Security Tox-MP cotton spray, Security Motox 63 cotton spray, Agro-Chem Brand Torbidan 28, and Dr Roger's TOXENE.[20]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0113". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
  2. ^ a b "Chlorinated camphene". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 4 December 2014. Retrieved 19 February 2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "Toxaphene - ToxFAQs". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g "Toxaphene" (PDF). Report on Carcinogens. 13. National Toxicology Program, Department of Health and Human Services. October 2, 2014. Retrieved 16 March 2015.
  5. ^
    doi:10.1021/jf00118a017
    .
  6. ^
    PMID 21139852
    .
  7. ^ "Technical Factsheet on: TOXAPHENE" (PDF). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h "Toxaphene". Technology Transfer Network - Air Toxics Web Site. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 17 March 2015.
  9. ^ Buntin, G.A. U.S. patent 2,565,471, 1951.
  10. PMID 10739064
    .
  11. PMID 10448561
    .
  12. doi:10.1021/es00153a005
    .
  13. ^ a b Hercules Powder Company (February 1950). "These Facts Now Can Help You Fight Insects in 1950". Farm Journal: 54.
  14. ^ "Technical Factsheet on Toxaphene" (PDF). Drinking Water Contaminants. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 21 April 2015.
  15. ^ a b c "Public Health Goal for TOXAPHENE in Drinking Water" (PDF). California Environmental Protection Agency.
  16. ^ Chancellor, John; Oliver, Don (1979-02-22). "Possible Toxaphene Cattle Poisoning". NBC News. Vanderbilt Television News Archive. http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=502980. Retrieved on 2008-02-08.
  17. ^ "Toxaphene". Persistent Organic Pollutants Toolkit. Retrieved 2015-04-22.
  18. ^ "Stockholm Convention" (PDF). chm.pops.int. Retrieved 2009-03-05.
  19. ^ "40 C.F.R.: Appendix A to Part 355—The List of Extremely Hazardous Substances and Their Threshold Planning Quantities" (PDF) (July 1, 2008 ed.). Government Printing Office. Retrieved October 29, 2011. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  20. ^ "Consumer Factsheet on: TOXAPHENE". www.epa.gov. Archived from the original on 2009-05-10. Retrieved 2009-03-05.

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Toxaphene&oldid=1194796229"