Toyota RAV4 EV
Toyota RAV4 EV | |
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Chronology | |
Successor | Toyota bZ4X |
The Toyota RAV4 EV is an all-electric version of the popular RAV4 SUV produced by Toyota until 2014. Two generations of the EV model were sold in California, and to fleets elsewhere in the US, with a gap of almost ten years between them.
The first generation was leased from 1997 to 2003, and at the lessees' request, many units were sold after the vehicle was discontinued.[1] A total of 1,484 were leased and/or sold in California to meet the state's mandate for zero-emissions vehicle.[2] A small number were sold or leased in fleet sales in other states. As of mid-2012, there were almost 500 vehicles still in use in California.[3] Production of the second generation EV was limited to 2,600 units during a three-year run, with sales limited to California beginning in 2012.[4][5] Production ended in September 2014.[6] A total of 2,489 units of the second generation model were sold in California through April 2015.[7][8][9]
Toyota worked together with
First generation (1997)
First generation | ||
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Curb weight 3,440 lb (1,560 kg)[13] | |
The first fleet version of the RAV4 EV became available on a limited basis in 1997. In 2001 it was possible for businesses, cities or utilities to lease one or two of these cars. Toyota then actually sold or leased 328 RAV4 EVs to the general public in 2003, at which time the program was terminated despite waiting lists of prospective customers.
The RAV4 EV closely resembles the regular internal combustion engine (ICE) version - without a tailpipe - and has a governed top speed of 78 mph (126 km/h) with an EPA rated range of 95 mi (153 km).[12] The 95 amp-hour nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH) has a capacity of 27.4 kWh, charges inductively and has proven to be very durable. Some RAV4 EVs have been driven more than 150,000 miles (240,000 km) using the original battery pack. It was also one of the few vehicles with a single speed gearbox when introduced to the market.
Beyond the unusual power train (batteries, controller and motor), the remaining systems in the RAV4 EV are comparable to the gasoline-powered RAV4. The power
Performance
The RAV4 EV production has a governed top speed of 137 km/h (85 mph), a tested 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) time of around 18 seconds (depending on state-of-charge on the batteries).[
The RAV4 EV battery pack uses 24 12-volt, 95Ah NiMH batteries capable of storing 27 kWh of energy.
Charging
Production vehicles use the
Some RAV4 EV prototypes were charged via a front fender mounted conductive charger coupling made by Yazaki Corporation.
Mileage costs
Charging a RAV4 EV from full-dead to full-charge uses approximately 30 kW·h of electricity; the excess above the battery pack capacity is used by the charging system. At a rate of US$0.09 per kilowatt-hour, this costs around US$2.70. As of May 2008, based on a gasoline price-per-gallon cost of US$3.80 and up and the non-EV 2003 RAV4 2-wheel-drive gasoline fuel efficiency of 27 mpg‑US (8.7 L/100 km; 32 mpg‑imp), the RAV4 EV costs approximately 5 times less a per mile basis, and makes mileage in the RAV4 EV the cost equivalent to a 111.1 mpg‑US (2.117 L/100 km; 133.4 mpg‑imp) small SUV.
In addition, the RAV4 EV has a charge timer built into the dashboard that enables the vehicle to start charging at a specific time. As the RAV4 EV easily becomes the main cost of electricity in an average-sized home, this enables the owner to use a Time-Of-Day Meter to reduce electricity costs. This configuration is a standard practice with RAV4 EV owners. The price of electricity at night depends on the carrier, but is usually in the range of 60% of the normal rate. In the use of charging the RAV4 EV, this equates to a cheaper cost-per-mile, roughly equivalent to a vehicle capable of 166.6 mpg‑US (1.412 L/100 km; 200.1 mpg‑imp), based on a price of US$3.00 per gallon.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency listed mileage ratings for the RAV4 EV in its yearly Fuel Economy Guide from 2000 through 2003. The 2003 model recorded fuel efficiency of 39 kW·h/100 mi city, 49 kW·h/100 mi highway; the city mileage rating was equivalent to 125 mpg‑US (1.88 L/100 km; 150 mpg‑imp), and 100 mpg‑US (2.4 L/100 km; 120 mpg‑imp) on the highway.[15] The EPA rated combined mileage was 112 mpg‑US (2.10 L/100 km; 135 mpg‑imp).
In 2007, the EPA updated its rating system and revised the ratings to a city equivalent of 87 mpg‑US (2.7 L/100 km; 104 mpg‑imp), highway equivalent of 69 mpg‑US (3.4 L/100 km; 83 mpg‑imp), and a combined equivalent of 78 mpg‑US (3.0 L/100 km; 94 mpg‑imp).[12]
Consumable items
The RAV4 EV's battery system is a consumable item. Toyota reports that battery pack replacement costs are currently higher than the value of the used vehicle.[16] Toyota tested the RAV4 EV in Japan for 300,000 miles (480,000 km) over two years before introducing the vehicle in the United States. The economies of scale are affecting the replacement cost of the RAV4 EV.
Prototyping
RAV4 EV pre-production prototypes were first released in a confidential evaluation program with electric utilities throughout the U.S. These prototypes were based on the smaller, shorter, two-door version of the RAV4. The prototypes included some versions fitted with Panasonic
The utility employee evaluators did not have to personally pay for the more costly and advanced NiMH batteries, and the NiMH RAV4 EV prototype received better reviews, due to its increased range. Its energy efficiency, however, was not as good as the PbA version. Due to the impracticality of developing two battery types for a limited volume program, Toyota opted for the higher-performance, higher-cost NiMH RAV4 EV. This resulted in a greater manufacturing cost, and higher purchase price.
A number of electric vehicle advocates voiced disappointment that the choice was made to manufacture only the NiMH version. Many electric vehicle advocates claimed that automaker's choice of the NiMH battery worked against the 1990s deployment of cost-effective electric vehicles based on PbA batteries, and that further development of lead–acid technology could result in performance equal to NiMH, but at a substantially lower price. Their argument was that a usable electric vehicle is possible at a substantially lower price, and that the lower purchase price would foster greater acceptance of electric vehicles. In fact, lithium-ion batteries soon displaced both nickel and lead from electromobiles.
Corporate purchasing
Initially, RAV4 EVs were only available for three-year fleet lease, not for sale and not for lease to the public, at a few dealerships beginning in 1997. From 2001, leases were made available to small "fleets of one" purportedly run by small businesses.
Public availability
In March 2002, due to a shift in corporate policy, the Toyota RAV4-EV was made available for sale to the general public. All 328 that Toyota made were sold. No one knows for certain what prompted Toyota to change their position on the RAV4-EV, since they had long since fulfilled their obligations under the MOA with the California Air Resources Board's zero-emissions vehicle (ZEV) mandate via its fleet lease program.
The
More RAV4-EVs were sold than had been planned for manufacture through standard assembly line techniques. Toyota filled every order despite the fact that the last few dozen vehicles had to be assembled from spare parts due to a shortfall of production components (a significantly more expensive way of building a vehicle). This unexpected development caused deliveries to trickle on into September 2003. It also caused variations in the vehicles such as heated seats, retractable antennae, mats, etc.[citation needed]
The last of the 328 EVs was sold in November 2002.[citation needed]
Sales
A total of 1,484 were leased and/or sold in California.[2][18]
Chevron patent encumbrance
Whether or not Toyota wanted to continue production, it was unlikely to be able to do so because the battery was no longer available. Chevron had inherited control of the worldwide patent rights for the NiMH battery when it merged with Texaco, which had purchased them from General Motors. Chevron's unit won a US$30,000,000 settlement from Toyota and Panasonic, the manufacturer of the battery, and the production line for the large NiMH batteries was closed down and dismantled. This case was settled in the ICC International Court of Arbitration, and not publicized due to a gag order placed on Toyota.[19][20] Only smaller NiMH batteries, incapable of powering an electric vehicle or plugging in, were allowed by Chevron-Texaco.[21]
Second generation (2012)
Second generation | ||
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Curb weight | 4,030 lb (1,830 kg) |
The second generation RAV4 EV was released in September 2012 starting at a price of US$49,800 before any government incentives.[4][10] Toyota also offered a 36-month lease option at US$599 per month with down payment of US$3,499.[10] The RAV4 EV was sold only in California, and sales began in the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles/Orange County and San Diego. Production was limited to 2,600 during three years.[4][5][23] The RAV4 EV was available to individual consumers and fleet customers.[24] Due to the capacity of its battery pack the RAV4 EV qualified for the maximum US$7,500 federal tax credit and also was eligible for a US$2,500 rebate in California.[25] A total of 192 units were sold during 2012 and 1,096 during 2013.[7] A total of 2,489 units were sold in the U.S. through April 2015.[7][8][9] The production run ended in September 2014.[6]
History
The first prototype was built in just three weeks after the signing of a joint development agreement where Toyota helped the then fledgling electric automaker Tesla start production in the NUMMI factory Toyota was vacating in Fremont, California. Toyota's partner Panasonic was also involved in the development, just as when Toyota developed the first generation of the RAV4 EV.[26] The electric SUV was developed by Tesla and Toyota Technical Center U.S.A. in Michigan.[26] Testing began in July 2010.[27][28]
A demonstrator was unveiled at the
On July 15, 2011, Tesla entered into a supply and services agreement with Toyota for the supply of a validated electric powertrain system, including a battery, charging system, inverter, motor, gearbox and associated software.[33]
The re-engineered RAV4 EV production version (Phase One vehicle) was unveiled at the May 2012 International Electric Vehicle Symposium in Los Angeles.[34] Production models use the SAE J1772 charging standard.[35] The battery pack, electronics and powertrain components in the production version are similar to those in used in the Tesla Model S sedan launched in June 2012.
Powertrain
The second generation RAV4 EV combines an electric powertrain from Tesla and a battery produced by Panasonic in a chassis built by Toyota.
The
The RAV 4 offers two drive modes: Normal and Sport. Peak power output of the motor is 115 kW (154 hp), with peak torque in normal mode of 296 N⋅m (220 ft⋅lb), and peak torque in sport mode of 370 N⋅m (270 ft⋅lb). Maximum vehicle speed in Normal mode is 85 mph (137 km/h), and maximum in Sport mode, which also has a more aggressive accelerator pedal feel, is 100 mph (160 km/h).
Battery and range
The battery pack is a 386 V
The RAV4 EV has two charge modes: Standard and Extended. In standard mode, the high voltage battery charges only up to 35 kWh and Toyota expected the electric SUV to achieve an EPA driving range rating of 92 mi (148 km) for this charging mode. Extended mode allows the battery to charge to its full usable capacity of 41.8 kWh, providing an expected EPA driving range of 113 mi (182 km) according to Toyota estimates.
Charging time with a 40 A/240 V charging station is 5 hours in Standard Mode and 6 hours for Extended Mode; the onboard charger delivers 9.6 kW. Toyota had arranged with
Production
The RAV4 EV began assembly in 2012 at Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada in Woodstock, Ontario alongside the regular gasoline version. Tesla built the electric powertrain at its plant at Toyota's old NUMMI facility, now the Tesla Fremont Factory, in Fremont, California, and then shipped them to Canada.[38][39] About 2,500 RAV4 EV vehicles were built between 2012 and 2014. The battery supply deal between Toyota and Tesla concluded with the end of production in August 2014.[40] In 2017, Toyota sold all its shares in Tesla.[41]
See also
- Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries
- Chevron Corporation
- Toyota
- Tesla Motors
- Electric vehicle
- Battery electric vehicle
- PZEV
- SULEV
- AT-PZEV
- Energy Conversion Devices Ovonics
- Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
- List of electric cars currently available
- List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
- Plug-in electric vehicle
References
- ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4.
- ^ a b Jim Motavalli (2010-07-16). "Toyota and Tesla Plan an Electric RAV4". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-07-18.
- ^ a b c d e f John Voelcker (2012-08-02). "2012 Toyota RAV4 EV: First Drive Of Tesla-Powered Crossover". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 2012-08-04.
- ^ a b c d Toyota Motor Sales, U.S.A. (2012-05-07). "Toyota introduces new RAV4 EV; 41.8 kWh pack, 100-mile range". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2012-05-09.
- ^ a b Christie Schweinsberg (2011-08-10). "Toyota Planning More EVs; Expecting Regional Demand for Prius Plug-In". Ward Auto. Archived from the original on 2011-08-25. Retrieved 2011-08-11.
- ^ a b Brad Berman (2014-09-24). "Toyota Wraps Up Production of RAV4 EV". PluginCars.com. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
- ^ a b c Jeff Cobb (2014-01-06). "December 2013 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2014-08-20.
- ^ a b Jeff Cobb (2014-12-03). "November 2014 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2014-12-07. See section "November 2014 Battery Electric Car Sales Numbers"
- ^ a b Jeff Cobb (2015-05-02). "April 2015 Dashboard". HybridCars.com and Baum & Associates. Retrieved 2015-06-20. A total of 17 RAV4 EVs and 1 Honda Fit EV were sold during the first four months of 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f Karla Sanchez (2012-09-14). "2012 Toyota RAV4 EV Gets EPA-Rated 103-Mile Range, 76 MPGe Combined". Motor Trend. Retrieved 2012-09-19.
- ^ a b Dickey, Darell. "Rav4EV Data". EVNut.com web site. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2014-02-19.
- ^ Dickey, Darell. "Rav4EV FAQ (Owner - 2002(3) and earlier)". EVNut.com web site. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ "2008.03.15 EVAoSC Meeting at AQMD - PV Solar EV Chargeport". Electric Vehicle Association of Southern California. 2008-03-15. Archived from the original on 2008-06-20. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Also available in a couple of the parking stalls are Small Paddle Inductive (SPI) TAL MagneCharge chargers usable with the remaining fleet of Toyota RAV4EVs
- U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved 2014-02-20.
- ^ "RAV4 EV". US: Toyota. Archived from the original on 2010-11-16. Retrieved 2011-01-07.
- ^ "Actor/Environmentalist Ed Begley, Jr. Is First Retail Customer of a Toyota RAV4-EV" (Press release). Toyota Motor Sales, USA, Inc. 2002-03-04. Archived from the original on January 5, 2013. Retrieved 2009-09-01.
- ^ "Toyota Concept Vehicles-- RAV4 EV". Toyota USA. Archived from the original on 2012-01-23. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
- ^ "The NiMH Battery Industry Pelican Brief... Of A Sort". Evworld.com. Archived from the original on 2010-01-03. Retrieved 2011-01-07.
- ^ "NIMH Battery Patent Lawsuit" (PDF). Ovonic.com. Archived from the original on 2004-07-17. Retrieved 2011-01-07.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ Forbes Bagatell-Black (2007-02-23). "NiMH Batteries: Obsolete Technology or Suppressed EV Solution?". EV World. Archived from the original on 2011-01-08. Retrieved 2009-09-01.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Toyota RAV4 EV key for meeting California ZEV requirements; Tesla powertrain uses Model S components". Green Car Congress. 2012-08-10. Retrieved 2012-08-04.
- ^ Brad Berman (2012-01-16). "Toyota Confirms Limited Production of Electric RAV4 and Scion iQ in 2012". PluginCars.com. Retrieved 2012-01-22.
- ^ "Toyota to sell RAV4 EV to public and fleets in 2012". Green Car Congress. 2011-07-19. Retrieved 2011-07-19.
- ^ Toyota PR Newswire (2012-08-04). "The All-Electric Toyota RAV4 EV First Drive". The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved 2012-08-04.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Nobuyuki Kojima and Takanori Yamamoto (2010-12-21). "Toyota thinks outside the box". Yomiuri Shimbun.
- ^ "Tesla and Toyota Formalize Agreement to Develop Electric Version of RAV4; Targeting US Sales in 2012". Green Car Congress. 2010-07-16. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- Autoblog. 2010-07-16. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
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- ^ Ben Wojdyla (2011-04-26). "2012 Toyota RAV4 EV Prototype Test Drive". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 2011-05-07.
- ^ Jerry Garrett (2012-08-03). "Toyota and Tesla Trot Out the RAV4 EV". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-08-04.
- ^ Tesla scores $100 million Toyota RAV4 EV-related contract
- ^ Toyota Motor Sales USA (2012-04-30). "Toyota to debut new RAV4 EV at EVS 26". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 2012-04-30.
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- ^ "Ontario gets Toyota's first non-Japan electric vehicle". Reuters. 2011-08-05. Retrieved 2011-08-05.
- ^ Jim Motavalli (2011-08-05). "Tesla-Powered Toyota RAV4 E.V. to Be Built in Canada, Not California". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-08-10.
- ^ Alan Ohnsman (2014-05-10). "Tesla Says Battery-Supply Deal for Toyota RAV4 EV to End". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2014-08-20.
- ^ "Toyota Sells Stake in Tesla". Industry Week. US. 2017-06-04. Retrieved 2022-08-03.