Trade route
Business logistics |
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Distribution methods |
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Management systems |
Industry classification |
A trade route is a
In
History
Development of early routes
Early development
Long-distance trade routes were developed in the Chalcolithic period. The period from the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE to the beginning of the Common Era saw societies in Southeast Asia, Western Asia, the Mediterranean, China, and the Indian subcontinent develop major transportation networks for trade.[5]
One of the vital instruments which facilitated long-distance trade was
Maritime trade
Navigation was known in Sumer between the 4th and the 3rd millennium BCE.[7] The Egyptians had trade routes through the Red Sea, importing spices from the "Land of Punt" (East Africa) and from Arabia.[11]
In Asia, the earliest evidence of maritime trade was the Neolithic trade networks of the Austronesian peoples among which is the lingling-o jade industry of the Philippines, Taiwan, southern Vietnam and peninsular Thailand. It also included the long-distance routes of Austronesian traders from Indonesia and Malaysia connecting China with South Asia and the Middle East since approximately 500 BCE. It facilitated the spread of Southeast Asian spices and Chinese goods to the west, as well as the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism to the east. This route would later become known as the Maritime Silk Road, although that is a misnomer, since spices, rather than silk, were traded along this route. Many Austronesian technologies like the outrigger and catamaran, as well as Austronesian ship terminologies, still persist in many of the coastal cultures in the Indian Ocean.[12][13][14]
Maritime trade began with safer coastal trade and evolved with the manipulation of the monsoon winds, soon resulting in trade crossing boundaries such as the
Visible trade routes
The peninsula of
According to Robert Allen Denemark (2000):[20]
"The spread of urban trading networks, and their extension along the
temperate areas such as Europe, but the dry steppe corridor of central Asia. This was truly a world system, even though it occupied only a restricted portion of the western Old World. Whilst each civilization emphasized its ideological autonomy, all were identifiably part of a common world of interacting components."
These routes – spreading religion, trade and technology – have historically been vital to the growth of urban civilization.[21] The extent of development of cities, and the level of their integration into a larger world system, has often been attributed to their position in various active transport networks.[22]
Historic trade routes
Combined land and waterway routes
Incense Route
The Incense Route served as a channel for trading of Indian, Arabian and East Asian goods.[23] The incense trade flourished from South Arabia to the Mediterranean between roughly the 3rd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[24] This trade was crucial to the economy of Yemen and the frankincense and myrrh trees were seen as a source of wealth by its rulers.[25]
The replacement of Greece by the
Pre-Columbian trade
Some similarities between the
Prior to the
Predominantly overland routes
Silk Road
The Silk Road was one of the first trade routes to join the Eastern and the Western worlds.[35] According to Vadime Elisseeff (2000):[35]
"Along the Silk Roads, technology traveled, ideas were exchanged, and friendship and understanding between East and West were experienced for the first time on a large scale. Easterners were exposed to Western ideas and life-styles, and Westerners, too, learned about Eastern culture and its spirituality-oriented cosmology. Buddhism as an Eastern religion received international attention through the Silk Roads."
Cultural interactions patronized often by powerful emperors, such as
Grand Trunk Road
The Grand Trunk Road – connecting
This highway has been associated with emperors
The British occupation of this road was of special significance for the
Vadime Elisseeff (2000) comments on the Grand Trunk Road:[41]
"Along this road marched not only the mighty armies of conquerors, but also the caravans of traders, scholars, artists, and common folk. Together with people, moved ideas, languages, customs, and cultures, not just in one, but in both directions. At different meeting places – permanent as well as temporary – people of different origins and from different cultural backgrounds, professing different faiths and creeds, eating different foods, wearing different clothes, and speaking different languages and dialects would meet one another peacefully. They would understand one another's food, dress, manner, and etiquette, and even borrow words, phrases, idioms and, at times, whole languages from others."
Amber Road
The Amber Road was a European trade route associated with the trade and transport of amber.[1] Amber satisfied the criteria for long-distance trade as it was light in weight and was in high demand for ornamental purposes around the Mediterranean.[1] Before the establishment of Roman control over areas such as Pannonia, the Amber Road was virtually the only route available for long-distance trade.[1]
Towns along the Amber Road began to rise steadily during the 1st century CE, despite the troop movements under Titus Flavius Vespasianus and his son Titus Flavius Domitianus.[42] Under the reign of
The 3rd century saw the Danube river become the principal artery of trade, eclipsing the Amber Road and other commercial routes.[1] The redirection of investment to the Danubian forts saw the towns along the Amber Road growing slowly, though yet retaining their prosperity.[44] The prolonged struggle between the Romans and the barbarians further left its mark on the towns along the Amber Road.[45]
Via Maris
Via Maris, literally
Trans Saharan trade
Early Muslim writings confirm that the people of
The powerful Saharan tribes,
Predominantly maritime routes
Austronesian maritime trade network
The first true maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean was by the
In eastern
Roman-India routes
The
The Indians were present in
Hanseatic trade
Shortly before the 12th century the Germans played a relatively modest role in the north European trade.[66] However, this was to change with the development of Hanseatic trade, as a result of which German traders became prominent in the Baltic and the North Sea regions.[67] Following the death of Eric VI of Denmark, German forces attacked and sacked Denmark, bringing with them artisans and merchants under the new administration which controlled the Hansa regions.[68] During the third quarter of the 14th century the Hanseatic trade faced two major difficulties: economic conflict with the Flanders and hostilities with Denmark.[3] These events led to the formation of an organized association of Hanseatic towns, which replaced the earlier union of German merchants.[3] This new Hansa of the towns, aimed at protecting interests of the merchants and trade, was prominent for the next hundred and fifty years.[3]
Philippe Dollinger associates the downfall of the Hansa to a new alliance between Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen, which outshadowed the older institution.[69] He further sets the date of dissolution of the Hansa at 1630[69] and concludes that the Hansa was almost entirely forgotten by the end of the 18th century.[70] Scholar Georg Friedrich Sartorius published the first monograph regarding the community in the early years of the 19th century.[70]
From the Varangians to the Greek
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks (Russian: Путь "из варяг в греки", Put' iz varyag v greki, Swedish: Vägen från varjagerna till grekerna, Greek: Εμπορική Οδός Βαράγγων – Ελλήνων, Emporikḗ Odós Varángōn-Ellḗnōn) was a trade route that connected Scandinavia, Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire. The route allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with Byzantium, and prompted some of them to settle in the territories of present-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.
The route began in Scandinavian trading centres such as Birka, Hedeby, and Gotland, crossed the Baltic Sea entered the Gulf of Finland, followed the Neva River into the Lake Ladoga. Then it followed the Volkhov River, upstream past the towns of Staraya Ladoga and Velikiy Novgorod, crossed Lake Ilmen, and up the Lovat River. From there, ships had to be portaged to the Dnieper River near Gnezdovo. A second route from the Baltic to the Dnieper was along the Western Dvina (Daugava) between the Lovat and the Dnieper in the Smolensk region, and along the Kasplya River to Gnezdovo. Along the Dnieper, the route crossed several major rapids and passed through Kiev, and after entering the Black Sea followed its west coast to Constantinople.
Maritime republics' Mediterranean trade
The economic growth of
From the 8th until the 15th century, Venetian and genoese merchants held the monopoly of European trade with the Middle East. The silk and spice trade, involving spices, incense, herbs, drugs and opium, made these Mediterranean city-states phenomenally rich. Spices were among the most expensive and demanded products of the Middle Ages. They were all imported from Asia and Africa. Muslim traders – mainly descendants of Arab sailors from Yemen and Oman – controlled maritime routes throughout the Indian Ocean, tapping source regions in the Far East and shipping for trading emporiums in India, westward to Ormus in Persian Gulf and Jeddah in the Red Sea. From there, overland routes led to the Mediterranean coasts. Venetian merchants distributed then the goods through Europe until the rise of the Ottoman Empire, that eventually led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, barring Europeans from important combined-land-sea routes.
Spice Route
As trade between India and the Greco-Roman world increased[72] spices became the main import from India to the Western world,[73] bypassing silk and other commodities.[74] The Indian commercial connection with South East Asia proved vital to the merchants of Arabia and Persia during the 7th and 8th centuries.[75]
The
On the orders of
Maritime Jade Road
The
Maritime Silk Road
The Maritime Silk Road refers to the
The Maritime Silk Road developed from the earlier
China later built its own fleets starting from the
Modern routes
The modern times saw development of newer means of transport and often controversial free trade agreements, which altered the political and logistical approach prevalent during the Middle Ages. Newer means of transport led to the establishment of new routes, and countries opened up borders to allow trade in mutually agreed goods as per the prevailing free trade agreement. Some old trading route were reopened during the modern times, although in different political and logistical scenarios.[86] The entry of harmful foreign pollutants by the way of trade routes has been a cause of alarm during the modern times.[87] A conservative estimate stresses that future damages from harmful animal and plant diseases may be as high as 134 billion US dollars in the absence of effective measures to prevent the introduction of unwanted pests through various trade routes.[87]
Wagonway routes
Networks, like the Santa Fe Trail and the Oregon Trail, became prominent in the United States with wagon trains gaining popularity as a mode of long-distance overland transportation for both people and goods.[88] The Oregon–California routes were highly organized with planned rendezvous locations and essential supplies.[88] The settlers in the United States used these wagon trains – sometimes made up of 100 of more Conestoga wagons – for westward emigration during the 18th and the 19th centuries.[88] Among the challenges faced by the wagon route operators were crossing rivers, mountains and hostile Native Americans.[88] Preparations were also made according to the weather and protection of trade and travelers was ensured by a few guards on horseback.[88] Wagon freighting was also essential to American growth until it was replaced by the
Railway routes
The 1844 Railway act of England compelled at least one train to a station every day with the third class fares priced at a penny a mile.[89] Trade benefited as the workers and the lower classes had the ability to travel to other towns frequently.[90] Suburban communities began to develop and towns began to spread outwards.[90] The British constructed a vast railway network in India, but it was considered to serve a strategic purpose in addition to the commercial purpose.[91] The efficient use of rail routes helped in the unification of the United States of America,[92] and the first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869.
The modern times saw nations struggle for the control of rail routes: The
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica (2002):Railroads reached their maturity in the early 20th century, as trains carried the bulk of land freight and passenger traffic in the
industrialized countriesof the world. By the mid-20th century, however, they had lost their preeminent position. The private automobile had replaced the railroad for short passenger trips, while the airplane had usurped it for long-distance travel, especially in the United States. Railroads remained effective, however, for transporting people in high-volume situations, such as commuting between the centres of large cities and their suburbs, and medium-distance travel of less than about 300 miles between urban centres.Although railroads have lost much of the general-freight-carrying business to semi-trailer trucks, they remain the best means of transporting large volumes of such bulk commodities as coal, grain, chemicals, and ore over long distances. The development of containerization has made the railroads more effective in handling finished merchandise at relatively high speeds. In addition, the introduction of piggyback flatcars, in which truck trailers are transported long distances on specially-designed cars, has allowed railroads to regain some of the business lost to trucking.
Modern road networks
The advent of
Trucks came into widespread use in the Western World during World War I, and quickly gained reputation as a means of long-distance transportation of goods.[95] Modern highways, such as the Trans-Canada Highway, Highway 1 (Australia) and Pan-American Highway allowed transport of goods and services across great distances. Automobiles continue to play a crucial role in the economies of the Industrialized countries, resulting in rise of businesses such as motor freight operation and truck transportation.[93]
The emission rate for cars using highways has been on a decline between 1975 and 1995 due to regulations and the introduction of
Modern maritime routes
A consistent shift from land based trade to sea-based trade has been recorded since the last three millennia.[97] The strategic advantages of port cities as trading centers are many: they are both less dependent on vital connections and less vulnerable to blockages.[98] Oceanic ports can help forge trading relationships with other parts of the world easily.[98]
Modern maritime trade routes – sometimes in the form of artificial
Waterway commerce was historically important to Europe, particularly to Russia.
The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road is a current project of the Chinese government to expand and intensify trade on the maritime Silk Road. This is leading to major investments in ports, traffic routes and other infrastructure in Europe and Africa as well. The maritime silk road essentially runs from the Chinese coast to Singapore and Kuala Lumpur, via the Sri Lankan Colombo towards the southern tip of India, to the East African Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then via the Suez Canal to the Mediterranean, there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the Upper Adriatic region to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe and the North Sea.[104][105][106][107][108][109]
Free trade areas
Historically, many governments followed a policy of protection of trade.[4] International free trade became visible in 1860 with the Anglo-French commercial treaty, and the trend gained further momentum[why?] during the period after World War II.[4] According to
"After World War II, strong sentiment developed throughout the world against protection and high tariffs and in favor of freer trade. The results were new organizations and agreements on international trade such as the
Common Market) undertook to remove all barriers to the free movement of trade and employment across their mutual borders."
In May 2004 the United States of America signed the American Free trade Agreement with five Central American nations.[4]
Air routes
Air transport has become an indispensable part of modern society.[110] People have come to use air transport both for long and middle distances, with the average route length of long distances being 720 kilometers in Europe and 1220 kilometers in the US.[111] This industry annually carries 1.6 billion passengers worldwide, covers a 15 million kilometer network, and has an annual turnover of 260 billion dollars.[111]
This mode of transportation links national, international and global economies, making it vital to many other industries.
Express delivery through international cargo airlines touched US$20 billion in 1998 and, according to the World Trade Organization, is expected to triple in 2015.[112] In 1998, 50 pure cargo-service companies operated internationally.[112]
Air transport particularly favors light, expensive and small products: electronic media rather than books, for example, and refined drugs rather than bulk food.
Pipeline networks
The economic importance of pipeline transport – responsible for a high percentage of oil and natural gas transportation – is often unrecognized by the general public due to the lack of visibility of this mode.
In some select cases, pipelines can even transport solids, such as coal and other minerals, over long distances; short-distance transportation of goods such as grain, cement, concrete, solid wastes, pulp etc. is also feasible.[113]
Notes
- ^ a b c d e Burns 2003: 213.
- ^ Donkin 2003: 169.
- ^ a b c d Dollinger 1999: 62.
- ^ a b c d e "free trade; The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05". Archived from the original on 3 August 2007. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
- ^ a b Denemark 2000: 274
- ^ a b Denemark 2000: 207
- ^ a b Denemark 2000: 208
- ^ Stearns 2001: 41.
- ^ Denemark 2000: 213.
- ^ Denemark1 2000: 39.
- ^ Rawlinson 2001: 11–12.
- ^ ISBN 9781588395245.
- ^ a b Doran, Edwin Jr. (1974). "Outrigger Ages". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 83 (2): 130–140.
- ^ ISBN 978-0415100540.
- ^ a b c "Ancient Trade and Civilization | World | Aurlaea".
- ^ Toutain 1979: 243.
- ^ Scarre 1995.
- ^ a b Stearns 2001: 37.
- ^ a b Roman road system (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002).
- ^ Denemark 2000: 124.
- ^ Denemark 2000: 126
- ^ Denemark 2000: 273.
- ^ "Traders of the Gold and Incense Road". Message of the Republic of Yemen, Berlin. Archived from the original on 8 September 2007.
- ^ "Incense Route – Desert Cities in the Negev". UNESCO.
- ^ Glasse 2001: 59.
- ^ Kitchen 1994: 46.
- ^ Edwards 1969: 329.
- ^ Larsen 1983: 56.
- ^ a b Eckenstein 2005: 49.
- ^ a b Lach 1994: 13.
- ^ Kearney 2003: 42.
- ^ Denemark 2000: 252.
- ^ a b c d Denemark 2000: 239.
- ^ a b c d Denemark 2000: 241
- ^ a b c Elisseeff 2000: 326.
- ^ Elisseeff 2000: 5.
- ^ a b Elisseeff 2000: 14
- ^ a b c Elisseeff 2000: 158.
- ^ a b c Elisseeff 2000: 161.
- ^ a b c Elisseeff 2000: 163
- ^ Elisseeff 2000: 178.
- ^ Burns 2003: 216.
- ^ a b Burns 2003: 211.
- ^ Burns 2003: 229.
- ^ Burns 2003: 231.
- ^ Orlinsky 1981: 1064.
- ^ a b c d Orlinsky 1981: 1065
- ^ Silver 1983: 49.
- ^ "Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a modern world". Smithsonian National Museum of African art.
- ^ a b c d e f g western Africa, history of (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ ISBN 9783319338224.
- ISBN 9780890961070.
- ^ Blench, Roger (2004). "Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo-Pacific region". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 24 (The Taipei Papers (Volume 2)): 31–50.
- ^ ISBN 9780195300307.
- ISBN 9781880188057.
- S2CID 161331467.
- ^ Shaw 2003: 426.
- ^ Young 2001: 20.
- ^ "The Geography of Strabo". Vol. I of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1917.
- ^ a b Halsall, Paul. "Ancient History Sourcebook: The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century". Fordham University.
- ^ a b Lindsay 2006: 101
- ^ Freeman 2003: 72
- ^ Lach 1994: 18.
- ^ Curtin 1984: 100.
- ^ Holl 2003: 9.
- ^ Dollinger 1999: 9.
- ^ Dollinger 1999: 42.
- ^ Dollinger 1999: page 54
- ^ a b Dollinger 1999: page xix
- ^ a b Dollinger 1999: xx.
- ^ G. Benvenuti - Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova, Venezia - Newton & Compton editori, Roma 1989; Armando Lodolini, Le repubbliche del mare, Biblioteca di storia patria, 1967, Roma.
- ^ At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos to India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise. – Strabo (II.5.12.); Source.
- ^ Ball 2000: 131
- ^ Ball 2000: 137.
- ^ Donkin 2003: 59.
- ^ a b Donkin 2003: 91–92.
- ^ a b c Donkin 2003: 92
- ^ a b Gama, Vasco da Archived 14 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press.
- ^ Tsang, Cheng-hwa (2000), "Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan", Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, 20: 153–158, doi:10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751
- ^ Turton, M. (2021). Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south. Taiwan’s relations with the Philippines date back millenia, so it’s a mystery that it’s not the jewel in the crown of the New Southbound Policy. Taiwan Times.
- ^ Everington, K. (2017). Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar. Taiwan News.
- ^ Bellwood, P., H. Hung, H., Lizuka, Y. (2011). Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction. Semantic Scholar.
- ^ "Maritime Silk Road". SEAArch.
- ^ a b c Guan, Kwa Chong (2016). "The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea" (PDF). NSC Working Paper (23): 1–30.
- S2CID 140665305.
- ^ Historic India–China link opens (BBC)
- ^ a b Schulze & Ursprung 2003: 104
- ^ a b c d e f wagon train (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ Seaman 1973: 29–30.
- ^ a b Seaman 1973: 30.
- ^ Seaman 1973: 348
- ^ a b Seaman 1973: 379.
- ^ a b c automotive industry (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ roads and highways (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002).
- ^ truck (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002).
- ^ a b Schwela & Zali 2003: 156
- ^ Denemark 2000: 282
- ^ a b Denemark 2000: 283.
- ^ a b Carter 2004.
- ^ Major 1993.
- ^ a b c canal (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002).
- ^ canals and inland waterways (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002).
- ^ a b Krech et al. 2003: 966
- ^ Guido Santevecchi: Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste in Corriere della Sera: 5. November 2019.
- ^ Wolf D. Hartmann, Wolfgang Maennig, Run Wang: Chinas neue Seidenstraße. Frankfurt am Main 2017, pp 59.
- ^ "Global shipping and logistic chain reshaped as China’s Belt and Road dreams take off" in Hellenic Shipping News, 4 December 2018.
- ^ Bernhard Simon: Can The New Silk Road Compete with the Maritime Silk Road? in The Maritime Executive, 1 January 2020.
- ^ Harry de Wilt: Is One Belt, One Road a China crisis for North Sea main ports? in World Cargo News, 17. December 2019.
- ^ Harry G. Broadman "Afrika´s Silk Road" (2007), pp 59.
- ^ Button 2004
- ^ a b c d e Button 2004: 9
- ^ a b Hindley 2004: 41.
- ^ a b c pipeline (Encyclopædia Britannica 2002)
- ^ BP Caspian: Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline (Overview).
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External links
- Trade Routes: The Growth of Global Trade. ArchAtlas, Institute of Archaeology, University of Oxford. Archived 22 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- Ancient Trade Routes between Europe and Asia. Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art