Transcendental Meditation

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Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, developer of the Transcendental Meditation technique.[1]

Transcendental Meditation (TM) is a form of silent

self-development, and higher states of consciousness. The technique has been variously described as both religious[4] and non-religious.[nb 1]

Maharishi began teaching the technique in India in the mid-1950s.[1] Building on the teachings of his master, the Hindu Advaita monk Brahmananda Saraswati (known honorifically as Guru Dev), the Maharishi taught thousands of people during a series of world tours from 1958 to 1965, expressing his teachings in spiritual and religious terms.[1][9] TM became more popular in the 1960s and 1970s, as the Maharishi shifted to a more technical presentation, and his meditation technique was practiced by celebrities, most prominently members of the Beatles and the Beach Boys. At this time, he began training TM teachers. The worldwide TM organization had grown to include educational programs, health products, and related services. Following the Maharishi's death in 2008, leadership of the TM organization passed to neuroscientist Tony Nader.

Research on TM began in the 1970s. A 2012 meta-analysis of the psychological impact of meditation found that Transcendental Meditation had a similar effect size and did not perform better overall than other meditation techniques in improving general psychological variables.[10] A 2017 overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses indicates TM practice may lower blood pressure, an effect comparable with other health interventions. Because of a potential for bias and conflicting findings more research is needed.[11][12]

History

Main article: History of Transcendental Meditation

The Transcendental Meditation program and the Transcendental Meditation movement originated with their founder Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and continued beyond his death in 2008.[1] In 1955,[13][14][15] "the Maharishi began publicly teaching a traditional meditation technique"[16] learned from his master Brahmananda Saraswati that he called Transcendental Deep Meditation[17] and later renamed Transcendental Meditation.[18] The Maharishi initiated thousands of people, then developed a TM teacher training program as a way to accelerate the rate of bringing the technique to more people.[18][19] He also inaugurated a series of tours that started in India in 1955 and went international in 1958 which promoted Transcendental Meditation.[20][21] These factors, coupled with endorsements by celebrities who practiced TM and claims that scientific research had validated the technique, helped to popularize TM in the 1960s and 1970s. By the late 2000s, TM had been taught to millions of individuals and the Maharishi was overseeing a large multinational movement.[22] Despite organizational changes and the addition of advanced meditative techniques in the 1970s,[23] the Transcendental Meditation technique has remained relatively unchanged.

Among the first organizations to promote TM were the Spiritual Regeneration Movement and the International Meditation Society. In modern times, the movement has grown to encompass schools and universities that teach the practice,

Maharishi Foundation.[27] The successor to Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, and leader of the Global Country of World Peace, is Tony Nader.[28][29]

Technique

Main article: Transcendental Meditation technique

The meditation practice involves the use of a silently-used

First Amendment of the United States Constitution.[5][44] The technique has since been included in a number of educational and social programs around the world.[45]

The Transcendental Meditation technique has been described as both religious and non-religious, as an aspect of a new religious movement, as rooted in Hinduism,

TM-Sidhi program.[51]

Movement

Main article: Transcendental Meditation movement

The Transcendental Meditation movement consists of the programs and organizations connected with the Transcendental Meditation technique and founded by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Transcendental Meditation was first taught in the 1950s in India and has continued since the Maharishi's death in 2008. The organization was estimated to have 900,000 participants worldwide in 1977,[52] a million by the 1980s,[53][54][55] and 5 million in more recent years.[when?][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][excessive citations]

Programs include the Transcendental Meditation technique, an advanced meditation practice called the TM-Sidhi program ("Yogic Flying"), an alternative health care program called

KHOE), and a satellite television channel (Maharishi Channel). During its 50-year history, its products and services have been offered through a variety of organizations, which are primarily nonprofit and educational. These include the Spiritual Regeneration Movement, the International Meditation Society, World Plan Executive Council, Maharishi Vedic Education Development Corporation, Transcendental Meditation for Women, the Global Country of World Peace, and the David Lynch Foundation
.

The TM movement also operates a worldwide network of Transcendental Meditation teaching centers, schools, universities, health centers, herbal supplements, solar panel, and home financing companies, plus several TM-centered communities. The global organization is reported to have an estimated net worth of

USD 3.5 billion.[66][67] The TM movement has been characterized in a variety of ways and has been called a spiritual movement, a new religious movement,[68][69] a millenarian movement, a world affirming movement,[70] a new social movement,[71] a guru-centered movement,[72] a personal growth movement,[73] a religion, and a cult.[69][74][75][76] Additional sources contend that TM and its movement are not a cult.[77][78][79][80] Participants in TM programs are not required to adopt a belief system; it is practiced by atheists, agnostics and people from a variety of religious affiliations.[81][82][83]
The organization has been the subject of controversies that includes being labelled a cult by several parliamentary inquiries or anti-cult movements in the world.[84][85][86][69][74][75]

Some notable figures in pop-culture practicing TM include

Julia Fox, Clint Eastwood, Martin Scorsese, Russell Brand, Nick Cave and Oprah Winfrey.[87]

Health effects

The first studies of the health effects of Transcendental Meditation appeared in the early 1970s.[88]

There is no good evidence TM reduces anxiety, or has any beneficial effect on forms of psychological stress or well-being.[89][90]

A 2012 review found that Transcendental Meditation performed no better overall than other meditation techniques.[10] The authors' analysis of a subset of these studies, those that studied specific categories of outcome, found that TM might perform better in reducing negative emotions, trait anxiety, and neuroticism and improving markers of learning, memory, and self-actualization, but performs more poorly in reducing negative personality traits, reducing stress, improving attention and mindfulness and cognition, in comparison with other meditation approaches.[91]

A statement from the American Heart Association said that TM could be considered as a treatment for hypertension, although other interventions such as exercise and device-guided breathing were more effective and better supported by clinical evidence.[92]

TM may reduce blood pressure according to a review that compared TM to control groups. A trend over time indicates practicing TM may lower blood pressure. Such effects are comparable to other lifestyle interventions. Conflicting findings across reviews and a potential risk of bias indicated the necessity of further evidence, conducted by researchers without bias. [11][12]

By 2004, the US government had given more than $20 million to Maharishi International University to study the effect of meditation on health.[93]

Views and claims

Views on consciousness (1963)

In his 1963 book, The Science of Being and Art of Living, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi says that, over time, through the practice of the TM technique, the conscious mind gains familiarity with deeper levels of the mind, bringing the subconscious mind within the capacity of the conscious mind, resulting in expanded awareness in daily activity. He also teaches that the Transcendental Meditation practitioner transcends all mental activity and experiences the 'source of thought', which is said to be pure silence, 'pure awareness' or 'transcendental Being', 'the ultimate reality of life'.[94]: pp 44–53 [95][96] TM is sometimes self described as a technology of consciousness.[97] According to author Michael Phelan, "The fundamental premise of the psychology of fulfillment is that within every person exists a seemingly inexhaustible center of energy, intelligence, and satisfaction... To the extent that our behavior depends on the degree of energy and intelligence available to us, this center of pure creative intelligence may be described as that resource which gives direction to all that we experience, think and do."[98]

According to the Maharishi, there are seven levels of consciousness: (i) deep sleep; (ii) dreaming; (iii) waking; (iv) transcendental consciousness; (v) cosmic consciousness; (vi) God consciousness; and, (vii) unity consciousness.[99] The Maharishi says that transcendental consciousness can be experienced through Transcendental Meditation, and that those who meditate regularly over time could become aware of cosmic consciousness.[100] An indication of cosmic consciousness is "ever present wakefulness" present even during sleep.[101] Research on long-term TM practitioners experiencing what they describe as cosmic consciousness, has identified unique EEG profiles, muscle tone measurements, and REM indicators that suggest physiological parameters for this self described state of consciousness.[101][102] However, the Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness notes that it is premature to say that the EEG coherence found in TM is an indication of a higher state of consciousness.[103]

Science of Creative Intelligence (1971)

In 1961, the Maharishi created the "International Meditation Society for the Science of Creative Intelligence".

Humboldt State University and University of Massachusetts.[107][108][109][110] The following year, the Maharishi developed a World Plan to spread his teaching of SCI around the world.[110][111]

The theoretical part of SCI is taught in a 33-lesson video course.

Maharishi European Research University (MERU) in Switzerland have awarded degrees in the field.[119] The Independent reports that children at Maharishi School learn SCI principles such as "the nature of life is to grow" and "order is present everywhere".[120] SCI is reported to be part of the curriculum of TM related lower schools in Iowa, Wheaton, Maryland[121] and Skelmersdale, UK.[122] In 1975 SCI was used as the call letters for a TM owned television station in San Bernardino, California.[123]

The Science of Creative Intelligence is not science.

Astrophysicist and sceptic Carl Sagan writes that the "Hindu doctrine" of TM is a pseudoscience.[127] Irving Hexham, a professor of religious studies, describes the TM teachings as "pseudoscientific language that masks its religious nature by mythologizing science".[104] Sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge describe the SCI videotapes as largely based on the Bhagavad Gita, and say that they are "laced with parables and metaphysical postulates, rather than anything that can be recognized as conventional science".[128] In 1979, the court case Malnak v Yogi determined that although SCI/TM is not a theistic religion, it deals with issues of ultimate concern, truth, and other ideas analogous to those in well-recognized religions.[129] Maharishi biographer Paul Mason suggests that the scientific terminology used in SCI was developed by the Maharishi as part of a restructuring of his philosophies in terms that would gain greater acceptance and increase the number of people starting the TM technique. He says that this change toward a more academic language was welcomed by many of the Maharishi's American students.[130]

Maharishi effect (1974)

Maharishi Mahesh Yogi claimed that the quality of life would noticeably improve if at least the square root of one per cent (1%) of the population practised the Transcendental Meditation technique. This is known as the "Maharishi effect" and according to the Maharishi, it was perceived in 1974 after an analysis of crime statistics in 16 cities.

TM-Sidhi program
including Yogic Flying, the Maharishi proposed that the square root of 1 per cent of the population (0.00016%, i.e. around 6325 people due to the world population being of about 4 billion people in 1974[133]) practicing this advanced program together at the same time and in the same place would create benefits in society. This was referred to as the "Extended Maharishi Effect".[131][134]

Author Ted Karam claims that there have been numerous studies on the Maharishi effect including a gathering of over 4,000 people (just over two thirds of the square root of 1% of the population) in Washington, D.C. in the summer of 1993.[131] The effect has been examined in 42 scientific studies.[135] The TM organisation has linked the fall of the Berlin Wall and a reduction in global terrorism, US inflation and crime rates to the Maharishi effect.[136] The Maharishi effect has been endorsed by the former President of Mozambique Joaquim Chissano.[137]

As the theories proposed by TM practitioners

cherry-picked data[140] and the credulity of believers.[139][141] Critics, such as James Randi, have called this research pseudoscience.[142] Randi says that he investigated comments made by former Maharishi International University faculty member Robert Rabinoff in 1978. He spoke to the Fairfield Chief of Police who said local crime levels were the same and the regional Agriculture Department who reportedly deemed that farm yields for Jefferson County matched the state average.[143]

Maharishi Vedic Science (1981)

The Maharishi proclaimed 1981 as the Year of Vedic Science.[94]: 336  It is based on the Maharishi's interpretation of ancient Vedic texts and includes subjective technologies like the Transcendental Meditation technique and the TM-Sidhi program plus programs like Maharishi Sthapatya Veda (MSV) and Maharishi Vedic Astrology (MVA) services which apply Vedic science to day-to-day living.[144][145] Vedic science studies the various aspects of life and their relationship to the Veda.

Maharishi Ayurveda

Main article: Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health

Maharishi Ayurveda[146][147] or Maharishi Vedic Medicine[148] is a form of alternative medicine founded in the mid-1980s by Maharishi.[63] Distinct from traditional ayurveda, it emphasizes the role of consciousness, and gives importance to positive emotions.[149] Maharishi Ayurveda has been variously characterized as emerging from, and consistently reflecting, the Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, representing the entirety of the ayurvedic tradition.[150][151]

Notes

  1. ^ Sociologists, religion scholars, and a New Jersey judge and court are among those who have expressed views on it being religious or non-religious.[1][5][6] The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit upheld the federal ruling that TM was essentially "religious in nature" and therefore could not be taught in public schools.[7][8]

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Sources

Further reading

External links
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