A receptor cell converts the energy in a stimulus into an electrical signal.[1] Receptors are broadly split into two main categories: exteroceptors, which receive external sensory stimuli, and interoceptors, which receive internal sensory stimuli.[2][3]
electrical impulses that travel to the brain. The light causes a conformational change in a protein called rhodopsin.[1] This conformational change sets in motion a series of molecular events that result in a reduction of the electrochemical gradient of the photoreceptor.[1] The decrease in the electrochemical gradient causes a reduction in the electrical signals going to the brain. Thus, in this example, more light hitting the photoreceptor results in the transduction of a signal into fewer electrical impulses, effectively communicating that stimulus to the brain. A change in neurotransmitter release is mediated through a second messenger system. The change in neurotransmitter release is by rods. Because of the change, a change in light intensity causes the response of the rods to be much slower than expected (for a process associated with the nervous system).[4]
The auditory system
Main article:
Neuronal encoding of sound
In the
ear drum. The movement of the eardrum causes the bones of the middle ear (the ossicles) to vibrate.[5][6] These vibrations then pass into the cochlea, the organ of hearing. Within the cochlea, the hair cells on the sensory epithelium of the organ of Corti bend and cause movement of the basilar membrane. The membrane undulates in different sized waves according to the frequency of the sound. Hair cells are then able to convert this movement (mechanical energy) into electrical signals (graded receptor potentials) which travel along auditory nerves to hearing centres in the brain.[7]
The olfactory system
Main article:
Olfactory transduction
In the olfactory system, odorant molecules in the mucus bind to G-protein receptors on olfactory cells. The G-protein activates a downstream signalling cascade that causes increased level of cyclic-AMP (cAMP), which trigger neurotransmitter release.[8]
The gustatory system
Main article:
Gustatory system
In the
taste qualities (sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami [savoriness] ) depends on taste transduction pathways, through taste receptor cells, G proteins, ion channels, and effector enzymes.[9]
In the somatosensory system the sensory transduction mainly involves the conversion of the mechanical signal such as pressure, skin compression, stretch, vibration to electro-ionic impulses through the process of mechanotransduction.[10] It also includes the sensory transduction related to thermoception and nociception.
^Timothy A Gilbertson; Sami Damak; Robert F Margolskee, "The molecular physiology of taste transduction", Current Opinion in Neurobiology (August 2000), 10 (4), pg. 519-527
