Transgender history
Part of a series on |
Transgender topics |
---|
t |
Accounts of
The
Some Medieval European documents have been studied as possible accounts of transgender persons.
In the United States in 1776, the genderless Public Universal Friend refused both birth name and gendered pronouns. Transgender American men and women are documented in accounts from throughout the 19th century. The first known informal transgender advocacy organisation in the United States, Cercle Hermaphroditos, was founded in 1895.
Early sexual reassignment surgeries, including an ovary and
Historiography
A precise history of the global occurrence of transgender people is difficult to compose because the modern concept of being transgender, and of gender in general as relevant to transgender identity, did not develop until the mid-1900s. Historical understandings are thus inherently filtered through modern principles, and were largely viewed through a medical lens until the late 1900s.[1][2] Writer Genny Beemyn points out:[3]: 1
Can there be said to be a "transgender history," when "transgender" is a contemporary term and when individuals in past centuries who would perhaps appear to be transgender from our vantage point might not have conceptualized their lives in such a way? And what about individuals today who have the ability to describe themselves as transgender, but choose not to for a variety of reasons, including the perception that it is a White, middle-class Western term and the belief that it implies transitioning from one gender to another? Should they be left out of "transgender history" because they do not specifically identify as transgender?
Genny Beemyn argues that transgender history has also been filtered through gay history, identifying Billy Tipton as an example of a historical figure misrepresented by scholars as gay when a transgender reading of his life would be more appropriate.[3]: 3
Absence of autobiographical accounts has resulted in historians assigning identities to historical figures, which of course may be inaccurate.[3]: 3 Author Jason Cromwell assesses that if a person of the female sex indicated that they were a man, modified their body to look more traditionally male, and lived their life as a man, then he was a trans man; the same approach has been used to identify trans women. Genny Beemyn distinguishes trans people from crossdressers in the historical record by assessing that a person who crossdressed only in public did not mind exposing their dual life as a crossdresser, while those who crossdressed consistently (also in private) and sought to keep their sex a secret were more likely trans.[3]: 4
Beemyn also distinguishes non-binary people in the historical record. They note Indigenous societies in the "New World" who historically had non-binary gender roles enshrined in their society, which enraged European explorers. For example, in 1513
Africa
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt had third gender categories, including for eunuchs.[4] In the Tale of Two Brothers (from 3,200 years ago), Bata removes his penis and tells his wife "I am a woman just like you"; one modern scholar called him temporarily (before his body is restored) "transgendered".[4][5][page needed][6][page needed]
North Africa
The
West Africa
By the modern period, the Igbo had third-gender and transgender roles,[7][12] including for females who take on male status and marry women, a practice which also exists among the Dahomey (Fon) of Benin and has been viewed through both transgender and homosexual lenses.[13] Anthropologist John McCall documented a female-assigned Ohafia Igbo named Nne Uko Uma Awa, who dressed and behaved as a boy since childhood, joined men's groups, and was a husband to two wives; in 1991, Awa stated "by creation I was meant to be a man. But as it happened, when coming into this world I came with a woman's body. That is why I dressed [as a man]."[12][14]
East Africa
Among some Kenyan peoples, male priests (called mugawe among the Meru and Kikuyu) dress and style their hair like women and may marry men,[15][page needed] and have been compared to trans women.[7][9]
Among the Nuer people (in what is now South Sudan and Ethiopia), widows who have borne no children may adopt a male status, marry a woman, and be regarded as the father of any children they bear (a practice which has been viewed as transgender or homosexual);[9][16][17] the Nuer are also reported to have a male-to-female role.[7] The Maale people of Ethiopia also have a traditional role for male-assigned ashtime who take on feminine roles; traditionally, they served as sexual partners for the king on days he was ritually barred from sex with women.[18] The Amhara people of Ethiopia stigmatize men in their communities who adopt feminine dress.[19][20]
In Uganda today, transphobia and homophobia is increasing, introduced in the 1800s and 1900s by Christian missionaries[21] and stoked in the 2000s by conservative evangelicals;[22] trans people are now often kicked out by their families and denied work, and face discrimination in accessing healthcare.[23][24][25] Traditionally, Ugandan peoples were[when?] largely accepting of trans and gay people;[21] the Lango people accepted trans women—male-assigned people called jo apele or jo aboich who were believed to have been transformed at conception into women by the androgynous deity Jok, and who adopted women's names, dress, and face-decorations, grew their hair long, simulated menstruation, and could marry men[9][21]—as did the Karamojong and Teso,[21] and the Lugbara people had roles for both trans women (okule) and trans men (agule).[26][27]
Southern Africa
Traditional Bantu third genders
Various
Botswana
In two cases in 2017, Botswana's High Court ruled trans men and trans women have the right to have their gender identity recognized by the government and to change gender markers; the court said the registrar's refusal to change a marker was unreasonable and violated the person's "rights to dignity, privacy, freedom of expression, equal protection of the law, freedom from discrimination and freedom from inhumane and degrading treatment".[31][32][33]
South Africa
From the 1960s to 1980s, the
Since March 2004, trans and
Americas
North America
Early history
Prior to western contact, some
One of the first European accounts of Iroquois practices of gender was made by missionary Joseph-François Lafitau who spent six years among the Iroquois starting in 1711,[44] and observed "women with manly courage who prided themselves upon the profession of warrior, [and seemed] to become men alone", and people he called "men cowardly enough to live as women."[45][relevant?]
Meskell and Olson write that there is archaeological evidence that third-gender or similar people existed in California 2,500 years ago at rates comparable to those at which they currently exist among Indigenous peoples in the region,
Canada
This section needs expansion with: material from the period 1970 to 2002. You can help by adding to it. Find sources: "Canada" transgender history – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2021) |
In 1970, Dianna Boileau underwent sex reassignment surgery at Toronto General Hospital, becoming possibly the first in Canada to do so. Over the following two years, Boileau shared her story with a number of press outlets and published a 1972 memoir, Behold, I Am a Woman, before retreating from the public eye.[49]
In 2002, sexual orientation and gender identity were included in the Northwest Territories Human Rights Act.
In June 2012, gender identity and expression were added to the Ontario Human Rights Code, and gender identity was added to the Manitoba Human Rights Code.[50] In December 2012 Nova Scotia added gender identity and expression to the list of things explicitly protected from harassment in that province's Human Rights Act.[51] In May 2012, after a legal battle to reverse her disqualification for not being a "naturally born female", Vancouver resident Jenna Talackova became the first trans woman to compete in a Miss Universe pageant, and was one of four contestants to win "Miss Congeniality".[52]
In March 2013, the House of Commons passed Bill C-279 to officially extend
In December 2015, legislator
In 2016, gender identity or expression was added to the
Since August 2017, Canadians can indicate that they are neither male nor female on their passports, using an 'x' marker.[60]
In January 2018, Canadian Women's Hockey League player Jessica Platt came out, the first trans woman to come out in North American professional hockey.[61]
Haiti
In 1791, early in the
In the modern era, discrimination and violence against transgender people is common in Haitian society, though many LGBT people find it easier to be open about their gender within the
Mexico
In several pre-Columbian communities across Mexico, anthropologists and colonial accounts document acceptance of third-gender categories.[76]
The
During the Mexican Revolution, Amelio Robles Ávila began to dress and demand to be treated as a man[83] and, gaining respect as a capable leader, was promoted to colonel.[84] Robles' maleness was accepted by family, society, and the Mexican government, and he lived as a man from age 24 until death;[83] a neighbor said that if anyone called Robles a woman, Robles would threaten them with a pistol,[85][86] and he killed two men who attacked him and tried to reveal his anatomy.[87]
United States
Thomas(ine) Hall, an indentured servant in Virginia, reported being both a man and a woman and adopted clothes and roles of each at different times until ordered by a court in 1629 to wear both men's breeches and a woman's apron; Hall is thought to have been intersex and is cited as an early example of "a gender nonconforming individual in colonial America".[88][89]
In 1776, the
During the Civil War, over 200 people who had been assigned female at birth donned men's clothing and fought as soldiers; some lived the rest of their lives as men and are thought by some to have been transgender, such as
In the late 1800s, We'wha, a Zuni lhamana fiber artist and potter, became a prominent cultural ambassador, visiting Washington, D.C. in 1896 and meeting President Grover Cleveland. The lhamana are male-bodied people who may at times take on the social and ceremonial roles usually performed by women in their culture, and at other times the roles more traditionally associated with men.[97][98][99]
In 1895 a group of self-described androgynes in New York organized a club called the Cercle Hermaphroditos, "to unite for defense against the world's bitter persecution".[100] They included Jennie June (assigned male at birth in 1874), whose The Autobiography of an Androgyne (1918) was one of a few first-person accounts in the early years of the 20th century which cast light on what life for a transgender person was like then.[101]
In some cases, immigrants would change their gender identity upon arrival in the United States, especially those assigned female at birth, ostensibly for social mobility, like Frank Woodhull, a Canadian immigrant who lived for about 15 years as a man in California and in 1908 was forced to disclose this during processing at Ellis Island.[102]
American jazz musician and bandleader
The possibility of someone changing sex became widely known when
The 1970s and 1980s saw organizations devoted to transgender social activities or activism come and go, including activist Lou Sullivan's FTM support group that grew into
The 1990s saw the establishment of
Organizations such as the
South America
Argentina
Bolivia
In 2016, Bolivia passed the Gender Identity Law, which allowed people over 18 to change their name, gender, and picture on legal documents.[132]
Brazil
European explorers reported
In the 1950s and 60s, gay bars began to open in
By the early 1990s, travestis and transsexuals organized political organizations which organized against police violence and for better care for those with HIV/AIDS.
Chile
During the
In March 1973, the first gender-affirming surgery in Latin America took place in Chile, when Marcia Torres underwent it in a Santiago hospital.[142][143] This took place just months before the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, and the new dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet began adopting policies which criminalized and marginalized the activities of gay and trans people.[144] Torres acquired the changed identity documents she sought from the courts after her surgery.[145]
In 2018, President Sebastián Piñera signed the Gender Identity Law, which allows transgender people over age 14 "to update their names on legal documents and guarantees their right to be officially addressed according to their true gender."[146]
Colombia
In December 2018, Davinson Stiven Erazo Sánchez was charged with the murder of Anyela Ramos Claros, a transgender woman, as a gender-based hate crime. Under the Rosa Elvira Cely law, feminicide, defined as "the killing of a woman because of her gender, or where there were previous instances of violence between the victim and the accused, including sexual violence," was made punishable by a prison sentence of 20 to 50 years. Claros was only the second transgender woman to have her murderer punished under this law.[147]
Peru
Prior to the 16th century arrival of Spanish conquistadors, the Inca Empire and their Moche predecessors revered third-gender persons and organized their society around an Andean cosmovision that made room for masculine and feminine ambiguity based in "complementary dualism." Third-gender shamans as ritual practitioners were subject to violence as the Spanish suppressed pre-colonial worldviews.[148]
In 2014, the Peruvian Constitutional Court ruled against a transgender woman changing her gender on her national identity document, but in October 2016 the court reversed the earlier decision, acknowledging "people are not only defined by their biological sex, but one must also take into consideration their psychic and social reality." Following this, transgender people in Peru can petition a judge for a legal gender change without having undergone sexual reassignment surgery.[149]
Uruguay
In 2018, Uruguay passed a law granting rights to transgender people, entitling them to gender confirmation surgery and hormones paid for by the state. The law also mandates that a number of transgender people receive public jobs.
Asia
Ancient Sumer and Assyria
In ancient
West Asia (the Middle East)
For the history of Roman and Byzantine Asia, see § Rome and Byzantium.
Arabian peninsula
Iran
Under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, transsexuals and crossdressers were classed with gays and lesbians and faced lashing or death.
Beginning in the 1970s, trans woman
As of 2008,[update] Iran carries out more sex change operations than any other nation except Thailand;[159] the government pays up to half the cost for those needing financial assistance, and a sex change is recognized on one's birth certificate.[160] Some gay people are also pressured into sex reassignment.[161]
Israel and Palestine
In 1998, Israeli pop singer Dana International became the first trans person to enter and win the Eurovision Song Contest.[162][163] In 2008, singer and trans woman Aderet became popular in Israel and neighboring Lebanon.[164]
The second week of June is the
Ottoman Empire
Eunuchs, who served in the Ottoman Empire from the 16th to late 19th century[168] (and were commonly exiled to Egypt after their terms,[169] where black eunuchs had served pre-Ottoman rulers as civil servants since the 10th century)[170] have sometimes been viewed as a kind of third gender or an alternative male gender.[171]
East Asia
China
Eunuchs existed in China over 3000 years ago. They were imperial servants and common as civil servants from the time of the Qing dynasty until a century ago.[172][173] Eunuchs have sometimes been viewed as a third sex[174][175] or a transgender practice, and Chinese histories have often expressed the relationship of a ruler to his officials in the terms of a male relationship to females.[176]
Cross-gender behavior has long been common in Chinese theatre, especially in dan roles, since at least the Ming and Qing dynasties.[176][177][178] Today, Jin Xing is a well-known entertainer and trans woman.[179]
In the mid-1930s, after Yao Jinping's father went missing during the war with Japan, the 19-year-old reported having lost all feminine traits and become a man (and was said to have an Adam's apple and flattened breasts) and left to find him; the event was widely reported on by the press.[180][181] Du He, who wrote an account of it, insisted Yao did become a man, and Yao has been compared to both Lili Elbe (who underwent sex reassignment in the same decade) and Hua Mulan (a mythical wartime crossdresser).[180][181]
In the 1950s, doctors in Taiwan forced Xie Jianshun, an intersex man, to undergo male-to-female sex reassignment surgery; Taiwanese press compared the former soldier to Christine Jorgensen, who had sought out surgery,[182][183] and the decade-long media frenzy over Xie led to increased coverage of intersex and transgender people in general.[184]
In the 1990s, transgender studies was established as an academic discipline. Transgender people are considered a "sexual minority" in China,[185] where widespread transphobia means trans people face discrimination in accessing housing, education, work, and healthcare.[177][186][187] China requires trans people to get the consent of their families before sex reassignment surgery, leading many to buy hormones on the black market and attempt surgeries on themselves.[186][187]
Japan
Historical documentation of male- and female-assigned transgender people is extensive, especially in the Edo period.[188] Trans-masculine people were found especially in Yoshiwara, Edo's red-light district, and in the modern era have worked in onabe bars since the 1960s.[188] At the start of the Edo period in 1603, Izumo no Okuni founded kabuki (dressing as a handsome man to tryst with a woman in one popular performance, and being honored with a statue near where she performed which depicts her as a cross-dressing samurai with a sword and fan); in 1629, when the Tokugawa shogunate banned women from acting,[188] male performers took on the roles of women. Some, such as onnagata actor Yoshizawa Ayame I (1673–1729) dressed, behaved and ate like women even outside the theatre.[189]
In 2004 Japan passed a law requiring people who want to change their gender marker to have sex reassignment surgery and be sterilized, be single, and have no children under age 20, which the supreme court upheld in 2019.[190][191] In 2017, Japan became one of the first countries in the modern world to elect an openly trans man to office, electing Tomoya Hosoda as a city councillor in Iruma.[192][193]
South and Southeast Asia
Cambodia
Under the Khmer Rouge, Phnom Penh's trans community was expelled or killed, and trans women and men were raped, jailed, or killed.[194] Some escaped and live as refugees in the US.[195]
Indian subcontinent
Indian texts from as early as 3000 years ago document a third gender, which has been connected to the
The Buddhist
Beginning in the 1870s, the colonial authorities attempted to eliminate hijras, prohibiting their performances and transvestism.[202] In India, since independence, several state governments have introduced specific welfare programs to redress historical discrimination against hijras and transgender people.[208] Today, there are at least 490,000 hijras in India,[209] and an estimated 10,000 to 500,000 in Bangladesh,[210] and they are legally recognized as a third gender in Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan.[209][211] In 1999, Kamla Jaan became the first hijra elected mayor of an Indian city, Katni, and around the same time Shabnam Mausi was elected as a legislator from Gorakhpur.[196] In Bangladesh, in 2019, several trans people filed to run for parliament, which currently has no trans or hijra members.[212]
In Hinduism, Ardhanarishvara, a half-male, half-female fusion of Shiva and Shakti, is one of several deities important to many hijras and transgender Hindus,[213][214] and has been called an androgynous and transgender deity.[215][216]
Indonesia
Indonesia has a trans-/third-gender category of people called
The
An all-transgender netball team from Indonesia competed at the 1994 Gay Games in New York City. The team had been the Indonesian national champions.[222]
Philippines
Today, male-assigned people who adopt a feminine gender expression and are transgender or gay are termed
Thailand
Some (especially Thai) scholars identify the third- and fourth genders documented in the
The category of kathoey was historically open to male-assigned, female-assigned and intersex people.[232] Since the 1970s, the term has come to be used (by others) to denote mainly male-assigned transvestites or trans women,[232][233] the latter of whom usually refer to themselves simply as phuying ("women"); a minority refer to themselves as phuying praphet song ("second-type women") or sao praphet song ("second-type females"), and only very few refer to themselves as kathoey.[234][235] Kathoey is often rendered into English as "ladyboy".
Europe
Earliest history
Certain drawings and figures from the Neolithic period and Bronze Age found around the Mediterranean have been interpreted as genderless.[239]
Near what is today Prague, a burial from 4,900 to 4,500 years ago was found of a biologically male skeleton in a woman's outfit with feminine grave goods, which some archaeologists consider an early transgender burial.[240][241][242][243][244]
Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and Byzantium
In Ancient Greece, Phrygia, and the Roman Republic and Empire, Cybele and Attis were worshiped by galli priests (documented from around 200 BCE to around 300 CE)[245] who wore feminine clothes, referred to themselves as women, and often castrated themselves,[246][247] and have therefore been seen as early transgender figures.[248][249]
In Rome, cross-dressing was also practiced during Saturnalia, which some argue reinforced established gender identities by making such practices unacceptable outside that rite.[250] Romans also viewed cross-dressing negatively and imposed it as a punishment, as when Charondas of Catane decreed deserters wear female clothes for three days or when, after Crassus' defeat, the Persians hung a lookalike of the dead general clad as a woman.[250][251]
Women who cross-dressed as men could have access to male opportunities, as depicted in the fictional story of an Athenian woman dressing as a man to vote in the ekklesia in Aristophane's Ekklesiazusae, or when Agnodice of Athens dressed as a man to get a degree in medicine, Axiothea from Phlius cross-dressed to attend Plato's lectures, and the wife of Calvisius Sabinus dressed as a soldier to join a military camp.[252]
Roman emperor
In the 500s,
Other Byzantine hagiographies describe eunuchs, who occupied a kind of third-gender status, like Ignatios of Constantinople (who became patriarch of Constantinople and a saint).[260][261]
Norse society stigmatized effeminacy (especially sexual passivity, but also—it is sometimes said—transgender and cross-dressing behavior),
In 2017, archaeologists found that the bones of a
Middle Ages
Gregory of Tours in his 6th century History of the Franks, included a story about a castrated man who dressed in women's clothing and was alleged to be living as a nun at the monastery of the Holy Cross in Poitiers.[273]
A 2021 study concluded that a grave from 1050 to 1300 in Hattula, Finland, containing a body buried in feminine clothing with brooches, valuable furs and a hiltless sword (with a second sword later buried above the original grave), which earlier researchers speculated to be two bodies (a male and female) or a powerful woman, was one person with Klinefelter syndrome and that "the overall context of the grave indicates that it was a respected person whose gender identity may well have been non-binary".[274][275]
In the 1322 book Even Boḥan, Kalonymus ben Kalonymus (from Provence, France) wrote a poem expressing lament at and cursing having been born a boy, calling a penis as a "defect" and wishing to have been created as a woman, which some writers see as an expression of gender dysphoria and identification as a trans woman.[276][277][278][279]
In 1394, London authorities arrested a male-bodied
A few medieval works explore female-to-male transformation and trans figures.
Medieval Christian church
Trans figures and non-normative gender traits were acknowledged by the medieval church, and were often interpreted as expressions of God's plan, rather than deviations from it.[260] Many transgender saints and clergy members were celebrated and uplifted by the medieval church. Trans people were canonized in the early days of Christianity on account of their "extraordinary lives" and the view that they were extraordinarily blessed by God.[294] As the medieval church developed stricter policies and procedures, its view of trans people changed.
Marina the Monk, or Marinos, was a transgender person in the clergy. Sources vary, but he likely lived somewhere between the fifth and eighth centuries near modern-day Syria.[295] Marinos, though assigned female at birth, chose to enter a monastery as a monk, following his father and saying the modesty and abstinence that came with the life of a monk would protect his identity. He was expelled from the monastery after a woman accused him of impregnating her, but never refuted the claims made against him, as doing so would involve revealing his genitals; instead, he fathered the child and was eventually allowed back into the monastery along with his son. His sex was only discovered after his death. He is named a saint by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.[296]
The theme of "sexual disguise"[297] was popular, especially in early monasticism. Numerous female hermits living alone in the desert dressed identical to male hermits. Mary of Egypt, who was born in Alexandria in the early fifth century, is one popular example of an "emasculated female saint."[298] In depictions of her after her conversion to ascetic life, both in visual art and in personal accounts, Mary is portrayed as seemingly genderless. When she stripped herself of all aspects of her previous identity, she also seemed to have shed her gender. Thecla, a contemporary of the apostle Paul, shaved her head and adopted a man's dress in order to prove her devotion and piety.[299] She, like Mary of Egypt, shed her female identity in pursuit of a devoutly religious lifestyle.
Historian Caroline Walker Bynum has explored the idea of Jesus as an androgynous figure. In the 12th century, the idea of "mother Jesus" began showing up more and more in religious texts. In many Cistercian texts, Jesus is described as both the son of God, and the mother of all people. He is ascribed traits like nurturing and affectionate, which were not used to describe men at the time, presenting Jesus as somewhere between distinctly male and distinctly female.[300]
Trans ideas continued to show up in religious writing throughout the Middle Ages. One story that bridged the gap between secular and religious ideas of transness is the fictional story of Blanchandin, which gives insight into attitudes towards transgender people in the Middle Ages. The fourteenth-century chanson de geste Tristan de Nanteuil details how Blanchandin was physically transformed from woman to man in order to father St. Gilles, being visited by an angel who gives him testicles and a penis. Rather than being portrayed as a transgression against the natural order of things, this transition is seen as a "radiant expression of God's will". Blanchandin was viewed as having a special relationship to God and to his mission on earth.[260]
Around the turn of the thirteenth century, the church's view of trans people began to change. The church developed a firmer stance on issues including non-normative gender expressions. As tensions rose between Christianity and Judaism, so did the divide between who was a part of the church and who was not. Those who did not fit neatly into the gender binary did not fit into the church. Religious doctrine insisted that intersex people choose one sex organ or the other to perform sexual acts with, lest they be accused of engaging in sodomy.[301] The Cathars, who erased all ideas of sex and gender from their belief system, were labeled as heretics.[302] The church's reaction to the Cathars exemplified a greater trend within the medieval church, one that did not accept rejection of the gender binary.
Balkans
Balkan sworn virgins such as Stana Cerović are women who take a vow of chastity and live as men; they dress as men, socialize with men, do men's activities, and are usually referred to with masculine pronouns in and outside their presence.[303] They take their name from the vow of celibacy they traditionally swore. The gender role, found among several national and religious groups in the Balkans (including Muslims and Christians in Albania, Bosnia, Macedonia and Dalmatia), dates to at least the 15th century.[304][305] It is thought to be the only traditional, formally socially defined trans-masculine gender role in Europe, but it has been suggested that it may be a survival of a more widespread pre-Christian European gender category.[306]
Belgium
On October 1, 2020,
Denmark
Denmark is also known for its role in the transition of American Christine Jorgensen, whose operations were performed in Copenhagen starting in 1951.[315]
In 2017 Denmark became the first country in the world to remove transgender identities from its list of disorders of mental health.[316]
France
Christine de Pisan makes one of the early accounts of gender transitioning in her autobiographical allegorical poem Le Livre de la mutation de fortune .[317]
The Chevalier d'Éon (1728–1810) was a French diplomat and soldier who appeared publicly as a man and pursued masculine occupations for 49 years,[318] but during that time successfully infiltrated the court of Empress Elizabeth of Russia by presenting as a woman, and later promoted (and may have engineered) rumours that d'Éon had been assigned female at birth,[319][320][321] and thereafter agreed with the French government to dress in women's clothing, doing so from 1777 until death.[318] Doctors who examined d'Éon's body after death discovered "male organs in every respect perfectly formed", but also feminine characteristics; modern scholars think d'Eon may have been a trans woman and/or intersex.[321][322][323]
Herculine Barbin (1838–1868) was a French intersex person assigned female at birth and raised as a girl. After a doctor's examination at age 22, Barbin was reassigned male, and legal papers followed declaring Barbin officially male. Barbin changed names to Abel Barbin, and wrote memoirs using female pronouns for the period before transition, and male pronouns thereafter, which were recovered (following Barbin's suicide at age 30) and published in France in 1872, and in English in 1980. Judith Butler refers to Michel Foucault's commentary on Barbin in their book Gender Trouble.
Coccinelle (Jacqueline Charlotte Dufresnoy, 1931 – 2006) was a French actress, entertainer and singer who made her debut as a transgender showgirl in 1953, and became the first person widely publicized as getting gender reassignment case in post-war Europe, where she became an international celebrity and a renowned club singer.[324] Coccinelle worked extensively as an activist on behalf of transgender people in later life, founding the organization "Devenir Femme" ("To Become Woman").[325]
In March 2020, Tilloy-lez-Marchiennes elected—and in May, inaugurated—Marie Cau as mayor, making her the first openly transgender mayor in France.[326]
Germany
An early reference to transgender people in the German medical literature appeared in 1829, in a brief review article by Johann Baptist Friedreich. This article was also republished in 1830.[327][328] The article speculates on the causes behind a "female sickness" among Scythian priests, described by Hippocrates and later Herodotus; he compares this with transgender cases observed across various cultures.[329] Friedreich's article was followed by a separate medical description that appeared in 1870.[328]
In the early 1900s, transgender people became a subject of popular interest in Germany, covered by several biographies and the sympathetic liberal press in Berlin.
During the
On June 12, 2003, the
Italy
Traditional
In 2006 Vladimir Luxuria became the first openly transgender woman elected to the Italian Parliament and the first transgender member of a parliament in Europe.
In 2015, the Court of Cassation ruled that sterilization and
Russia
After 2013[345]—when the government passed a law against "promoting" "non-traditional relations"[346]—Russia became "notoriously hostile" to transgender people.[345][347] Dmitri Isaev's clinic, which provided medical authorization for half the sex reassignment surgeries, was forced to operate in secret.[348] In 2019, a court in Saint Petersburg, Russia's most liberal city,[348] ordered a business which had fired a woman when she transitioned to reinstate her.[349]
Itelmens of Siberia
Among the Itelmens of Siberia, a third gender category of the koekchuch was recorded in the 18th and 19th centuries, for people assigned male gender at birth but who dressed as women did.[350]
Soviet Union
According to historians Dan Healey and Francesca Stella, scholarship on trans identities in the Soviet Union has been fragmentary and that "a comprehensive history of the Soviet transsexual is needed."[351]
Following the revolutions of 1917,
In 1961, an interview with a trans woman was featured in the press where she recounted the abuse she faced from doctors, including being diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and being physically beaten.[355]
In 1968, in the
Spain
There are records of several 16th-century people in Spain who were raised as girls and subsequently adopted male identities under various circumstances who some historians think were transgender, including
During the Franco era, thousands of trans women and gay men were jailed, and today fight for compensation.[363] In 2007, a law took effect allowing trans people to change gender markers in documents such as birth certificates and passports without undergoing sterilization and sex reassignment surgery.[364][365]
Turkey
United Kingdom
Irish-born surgeon James Barry had a long career as a surgeon and rose to the second-highest medical office in the British Army,[368] improving conditions for wounded soldiers and the inhabitants of Cape Town, South Africa, and performing one of the first caesarean sections in which both the mother and child survived.[369]
In 1946, the first sex-reassignment phalloplasty was performed by one British surgeon on another, Harold Gillies on Michael Dillon (an earlier phalloplasty was done on a cisgender man in 1936 in Russia).[370]
Roberta Cowell, a former fighter pilot in World War II, was the first known trans woman to have undergone gender-affirming surgery the UK, in 1951.[371]
In 1961, English model
In 2004, the Gender Recognition Act passed, giving transgender people legal recognition of their gender before the law subject to certain conditions.[375]
Oceania
Australia
The first reported case of an Australian undertaking a sex change operation was an ex-RAAF Staff Sergeant Robert James Brooks in February 1956.[376]
The Gender Dysphoria Clinic at Queen Victoria Hospital, Melbourne was established by Dr Trudy Kennedy and Dr Herbert Bower in 1975. It moved to Monash Medical Centre in 1989 and closed in 2009.[377]
Australia's first transgender rights and advocacy organizations were established in 1979: the Melbourne-based Victorian Transsexual Coalition and the Victorian Transsexual Association; followed in 1981 by the Sydney-based Australian Transsexual Association, which included prominent activist, academic and author Roberta Perkins.[citation needed]
New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue
In 1995,
Some Maori use the terms whakawahine ("like a woman"), tangata ira tane ("human man") to refer to trans-woman- and trans-man-like categories.
Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Tahiti
In
In
In Fiji, vakasalewalewa (also written vaka sa lewa lewa)[385] are male-assigned people who perform roles usually carried out by women.[379][386] In Tahiti, the rae rae fulfil a similar role.[380]
See also
- Digital Transgender Archive
- International Transgender Day of Visibility
- Intersex in history
- LGBT history
- Transgender History (book)
- Timeline of LGBT history
- Timeline of transgender history
- Transgender legal history in the United States
- Transgender rights
- Transgender studies
- History of cross-dressing
References
- Notes
- ^ More on this at Russian Wikipedia, at: Same-sex marriage in Russia#History of attempts to recognize same-sex families in Russia.
- Citations
- S2CID 216073926.
- OCLC 1162214303.
- ^ a b c d e Beemyn, Genny (2020). Erickson-Schroth, Laura (ed.). Transgender History in the United States: A special unabridged version of a book chapter from Trans Bodies, Trans Selves (PDF). Oxford. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 21, 2021.
- ^ OCLC 647083746.
- ^ Crowhurst, Caroline Jayne (2017). "True of Voice?": The speech, actions, and portrayal of women in New Kingdom literary texts, dating c.1550 to 1070 B.C. (PDF) (Thesis). University of Auckland. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 2, 2022.
- ISBN 978-2-8066-2922-7.
- ^ OCLC 62782200.
- OCLC 295542.
- ^ )
- ^ Chan, Chol Duang (February 2, 2018). "Religious leaders encourage LGBT exclusion in South Sadan". Religion News Service.
- ^ "Sudan flogs 19 men in public for cross-dressing". Sudan Tribune. August 4, 2010.
- ^ ISBN 0472110705.
- ISBN 1770090932.
- ^ Falola, Toyin (2002). Nigeria in the twentieth century. p. 86.
- OCLC 9336355.
- ISBN 978-1-4129-0916-7.
- OCLC 874322978.
- OCLC 636888503.
- OCLC 29434712.
- OCLC 31329240.
- ^ )
- ^ Komane, Kago (June 25, 2019). "Analysis: Gay-bashing in Africa is 'a colonial import'". Daily Maverick.
- ^ "Status of LGBTI people in Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana and Uganda". Finnish Immigration Service. December 3, 2015.
- ^ McCool, Alice (May 10, 2018). "New masculinities: meet Uganda's transgender men fighting sexism". Reuters.
- ^ Dickerman, Kenneth (August 17, 2016). "The harsh reality of being transgender in Uganda". The Washington Post.
- OCLC 53015976.
- )
- OCLC 180772933.
- ^ Evaristo, Bernardine (March 8, 2014). "The idea that African homosexuality was a colonial import is a myth". The Guardian.
- )
- ^ Thomson Reuters Foundation (October 4, 2017). "Activists celebrate Botswana's transgender court victory". Reuters.
- ^ Igual, Roberto (December 6, 2017). ""Sweet closure" as Botswana finally agrees to recognise trans man". Mamba Online.
- ^ Graham, Darin (December 18, 2017). "Botswana to recognise a transgender woman's identity for first time after historic High Court ruling". The Independent.
- ^ Simo, Ana. "South Africa - Apartheid Military Forced Gay Troops Into Sex-Change Operations". The GULLY. Retrieved January 26, 2017.
- ^ "Boys will be girls as sex change bill passed". Independent Online. Sapa. September 26, 2003. Retrieved July 12, 2011.
- ^ "Changing your name and gender in your identity document: the Alteration of Sex Description Act 49 of 2003" (PDF). Gender Dynamix. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved September 29, 2013.
- ^ Rheeder, Johanette. "Unfair Discrimination Against Transsexuals". Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved July 3, 2013.
- ^ Pruden, Harlan; Edmo, Se-ah-dom (2016). "Two-Spirit People: Sex, Gender & Sexuality in Historic and Contemporary Native America" (PDF). National Congress of American Indians Policy Research Center.
- )
- ^ ISBN 9781412909167.
- ^ a b "A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out". The New York Times. October 8, 2006. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
- ^ "Two Spirit 101". NativeOut. Archived from the original on December 10, 2014. Retrieved September 23, 2015.
The Two Spirit term was adopted in 1990 at an Indigenous lesbian and gay international gathering to encourage the replacement of the term berdache, which means, 'passive partner in sodomy, boy prostitute.'
- ISSN 2307-0919. Archived from the originalon December 8, 2012. Retrieved June 25, 2016.
- S2CID 163903652.
- OCLC 801167318.
- OCLC 437214025.
- OCLC 62281964.
- OCLC 62281964.
- ^ Daubs, Katie (March 27, 2016). "The woman who was trans before her time". Toronto Star.
- ^ Saint-Cyr, Yosie (July 5, 2012). "Human Rights Legislation to Include Gender Identity in Manitoba and Ontario, Among Others". Slaw.
- ^ "Nova Scotia releases workplace guidelines for transgender employees". CBC News. May 17, 2016.
- ^ "Transgender contestant falls short at Miss Universe Canada". CBC News. May 19, 2012.
- ^ "Commons approves transgender rights bill". CBC News. March 20, 2013.
- ^ "Transgender rights bill gutted by 'transphobic' Senate amendment". CBC News. February 27, 2015.
- ^ a b "An Alberta MLA on battling gender identity". Maclean's. December 1, 2015.
- ^ "Canada appoints its first transgender judge". The Globe and Mail. December 18, 2015.
- Tablet Magazine. January 21, 2016.
- ^ a b "Transgender Canadians should 'feel free and safe' to be themselves under new Liberal bill". CBC News. May 17, 2016.
- ^ Salerno, Rob (June 14, 2017). "Yukon passes trans-rights bill". Daily Xtra. Retrieved July 20, 2017.
- ISSN 0319-0781. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
- ^ "Jessica Platt, Toronto Furies hockey player, comes out as transgender". Usatoday.com. Retrieved January 13, 2018.
- ISBN 978-0190625849.
- ^ Palmer, Colin A. (2006). Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History. p. 1972.
- ^ Middell, Matthias; Maruschke, Megan (2019). The French Revolution as a Moment of Respatialization. p. 71.
- ^ a b c Rey, Terry (2002). "Kongolese Catholic Influences on Haitian Popular Catholicism". In Heywood, Linda M. (ed.). Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora. pp. 270–271.
- ^ ISBN 9781317490883.
- ^ S2CID 211325678.
- ^ Fumagalli, Maria Cristina (2015). On the Edge: Writing the Border between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. p. 111.
- ^ Fumagalli, Maria Cristina, ed. (2014). The Cross-Dressed Caribbean: Writing, Politics, Sexualities. et al. (eds.). p. 11.
- ^ a b Popkin, Jeremy D. (2011). A Concise History of the Haitian Revolution. p. 51.
- ^ a b Rey 2017, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Bentouhami, Hourya (May 2017). "Notes pour un féminisme marron. Du corps-doublure au corps propre" [Notes for a brown feminism. From the body-lining to the own body]. Comment s'en sortir? [How to get out?] (in French). p. 111.
- ^ "The Impact of the Earthquake, and Relief and Recovery Programs on Haitian LGBT People" (PDF). International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission and SEROvie. 2011. pp. 3–4 (before and after the earthquake, respectively) and 8.
- S2CID 148877195.
- ^ "Haiti: Code pénal de Haïti" [Haiti: Penal Code of Haiti] (in French). Retrieved July 27, 2016.
- ^ Burnett, Victoria (June 22, 2016). "Bathroom Debate Complicates Mexican Town's Acceptance of a Third Gender". Juchitán de Zaragoza. The New York Times. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
- ^ Chiñas, Beverly (1995). "Isthmus Zapotec attitudes toward sex and gender anomalies". In Murray, Stephen O. (ed.). Latin American Male Homosexualities. pp. 293–302.
- ^ S2CID 145808692.; full text: (archived 2007)
- ^ Miano, M. (2002). Hombre, mujer y muxe' en el Istmo de Tehuantepec [Man, woman and muxe' in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec] (in Spanish). México: Plaza y Valdés.
- ISBN 978-0816536252.
- ISBN 9780684325538.
- ^ Rymph, David (1974). Cross-sex behavior in an Isthmus Zapotec village. Annual meeting of the American Anthropological Association. Mexico City.
- ^ a b Zárate, Lydia (September 13, 2016). "Amelio Robles, coronel transgénero de la Revolución mexicana" [Amelio Robles, transgender colonel of the Mexican Revolution] (in Spanish). Pikara Magazine. Retrieved December 13, 2017.
- ISBN 978-1477311738.
- ^ Cano, Gabriela (November 27, 2009). "Inocultables Realidades del Deseo: Amelio Robles, masculinidad (transgénero) en la Revolución mexicana" [Unconcealed Realities of Desire: Amelio Robles, masculinity (transgender) in the Mexican Revolution] (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 29, 2022. Retrieved December 30, 2017.
- ISBN 978-1438471914.
- ISBN 978-0822388449.
- ISBN 978-0199325368.
- ISBN 978-0190906573.
- ^ Moyer, Paul B. (2015). The Public Universal Friend: Jemima Wilkinson and Religious Enthusiasm in Revolutionary America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. p. 12.
- Brekus, Catherine A. (2000). Strangers and Pilgrims: Female Preaching in America, 1740-1845. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 85–87. ISBN 0807866547.
- ISBN 978-0807044650.
- Juster, Susan; MacFarlane, Lisa (1996). A Mighty Baptism: Race, Gender, and the Creation of American Protestantism. Cornell University Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 0801482127.
- Juster, Susan. "Neither male nor female". Possible Pasts: Becoming Colonial in Early America. pp. 362–363.
- Brekus, Catherine A. (2000). Strangers and Pilgrims: Female Preaching in America, 1740-1845. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 85–87.
- S2CID 143395264.
- Cleves, Rachel Hope (2014). "Beyond the Binaries in Early America". S2CID 144833615.
- Romesburg, Don, ed. (2018). "Revolution's End". The Routledge History of Queer America. ISBN 978-1317601029.
- Cleves, Rachel Hope (2014). "Beyond the Binaries in Early America".
- California Department of Parks and Recreation. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
- ^ "TransActive - Transgender History: People & Cultures". Transactiveonline.org. Archived from the original on July 26, 2012. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
- ISBN 0814735568.
- ^ Hannah Rosen, Terror in the Heart of Freedom : Citizenship, Sexual Violence, and the Meaning of Race in the Postemancipation South (2009, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press)
- ISBN 019090657X)
- ^ Stevenson, Matilda Coxe (2010). The Zuni Indians: Their Mythology, Esoteric Fraternities, and Ceremonies. BiblioBazaar.
- ISBN 0-8032-7126-3.
- ISBN 0-8263-1253-5.
- Salon.com. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
- ^ "Earl Lind (Ralph Werther-Jennie June): The Riddle of the Underworld, 1921". OutHistory. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 15, 2012.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved October 8, 2021.
- ^ Lehrman, Sally (May–June 1997). "Billy Tipton: Self-Made Man". Stanford Today Online. Retrieved February 1, 2007.
- OCLC 1008768117.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - ^ Leonard, Kevin (June 27, 2007). "Anderson, Lucy Hicks [Tobias Lawson] (1886-1954)". The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed. Retrieved May 11, 2018.
- OCLC 1008757426.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 978-1452958156.
- ^ Mcquiston, John T. (May 4, 1989). "Christine Jorgensen, 62, Is Dead; Was First to Have a Sex Change". The New York Times. Retrieved July 25, 2014.
- ^ a b Stryker, Susan. "Transgender Activism" (PDF). glbtq archives. glbtq. Retrieved February 6, 2016.
- ^ ISBN 9781580052245.
- ISBN 978-0-674-04096-0.
- ^ ISBN 9781476740713.
- ISBN 9780472074013), page 28
- ISBN 9781135398842.
- ^ Rice, Jen (October 9, 2020). "Monica Roberts, Legendary Voice For The Black Trans Community, Has Died". Houston Public Media.
- ^ Levenson, Eric (May 29, 2014). "Laverne Cox Is the First Transgender Person on the Cover of Time". The Wire. Archived from the original on July 21, 2016. Retrieved February 4, 2016.
- ^ Steinmetz, Katy. "The Transgender Tipping Point". TIME. Retrieved June 29, 2014.
- ^ Bissinger, Buzz (June 1, 2015). "Introducing Caitlyn Jenner". Vanity Fair. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
- ^ "Joanne Conte's life story a complex tale of gender, politics". The Denver Post. February 2, 2013. Retrieved December 5, 2016.
- ^ Osberg, Molly (November 8, 2017). "The Tragic Story of Althea Garrison, the First Trans Person to Hold State Office in America". Splinter. Retrieved January 19, 2018.
- Fox News. Associated Press. November 16, 2006. Archived from the originalon March 18, 2009. Retrieved November 29, 2022.
- ^ "White House to honor civil rights commissioner Iwamoto". Honolulu Star-Advertiser. May 20, 2013.
- ^ Cummings, William (November 7, 2017). "Virginia elects its first openly transgender delegate to state House". USA Today.
- ^ "Transgender children welcomed by the Girl Scouts of America". Imperfectparent.com. October 26, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2012.
- Huffington Post.
- ^ Grinberg, Emanuella (May 13, 2016). "White House issues guidance on transgender bathrooms". CNN.
- ^ "Trump and Transgender Rights, What Just Happened?". NPR. February 23, 2017.
- ^ Diamond, Dan; Pradhan, Rachana (May 24, 2019). "Trump administration rolls back health care protections for LGBTQ patients". Politico.
- ^ Burns, Katelyn (May 29, 2019). "This is the cruelest thing the Trump administration has done to trans people yet". The Washington Post.
- Buzzfeed News.
- ^ Hurley, Lawrence; Chung, Andrew; Mason, Jeff (June 15, 2020). Dunham, Will (ed.). "In landmark ruling, Supreme Court bars discrimination against LGBT workers". Reuters. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020.
- ^ "En un mes 50 transgénero y transexuales cambiaron su identidad en Bolivia" [In one month, 50 transgender and transsexuals changed their identity in Bolivia] (in Spanish). August 30, 2016. Retrieved September 2, 2016.
- ISBN 978-3-319-53224-0. Retrieved August 16, 2023.
- ^ ISBN 978-85-7566-546-6. Retrieved September 1, 2023.
- . Retrieved August 16, 2023.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-137-31435-2. Retrieved September 20, 2023.
- ISSN 2236-3467. Retrieved October 18, 2023.
- ^ ISSN 1984-6487. Retrieved August 16, 2023.
- ^ S2CID 237993048.
- ^ Pinheiro, Ester (January 23, 2022). "Há 13 anos no topo da lista, Brasil continua sendo o país que mais mata pessoas trans no mundo" (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved October 27, 2023.
- ISSN 1139-3637. Archived from the originalon October 20, 2022.
- ^ Jaque, José Miguel; Sánchez, Javiera (April 13, 2018). "La revolución de Marcia Alejandra" [The revolution of Marcia Alejandra]. La Tercera (in Spanish). Santiago, Chile. Archived from the original on April 24, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
- ^ Melo, Fabiola (January 10, 2011). "Murió la primera transexual de Latinoamérica" [The First Transsexual of Latin America Died]. La Nación (in Spanish). Santiago, Chile. Archived from the original on April 24, 2019. Retrieved May 25, 2019.
- ISSN 2341-4871. Archived from the originalon March 28, 2018. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
- ISSN 1984-6487. Retrieved May 24, 2019.
- ^ Campaign, Human Rights. "HISTORIC: Gender Identity Law Takes Effect in Chile". Human Rights Campaign. Archived from the original on April 30, 2019. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved April 30, 2019.
- ISBN 9780684325538.
- ^ "Perú: Tribunal Constitucional reconoce derecho a la identidad de género" [Peru: Constitutional Court recognizes right to gender identity] (in Spanish).
- ^ AP (October 19, 2018). "Uruguay passes law granting rights to trans people". AP NEWS. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
- ^ Tsjeng, Zing; Kale, Sirin (October 25, 2018). "Uruguay Has Massively Expanded Trans Rights". Broadly. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
- ^ Remezcla staff (October 23, 2018). "The Uruguayan Government Has Passed One of the Most Progressive Trans Rights Bills the World Has Seen". Remezcla. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
- ISBN 9780595305087.
- OCLC 909323355.
- Wadsworth Publishing. pp. 130–131.
- ISBN 9780226924489.
- ISBN 0816638934.
- S2CID 152120329.
- ^ a b Tait, Robert (September 26, 2007). "Sex change funding undermines no gays claim". The Guardian. Retrieved September 20, 2008.
- ^ Barford, Vanessa (February 25, 2008). "BBC News: Iran's 'diagnosed transsexuals'". BBC. Retrieved March 12, 2012.
- ^ Hamedani, Ali (November 5, 2014). "The gay people pushed to change their gender". BBC.
- ^ Barlow, Eve (May 10, 2018). "Viva la diva! How Eurovision's Dana International made trans identity mainstream". The Guardian.
- ^ Special Report (May 10, 1998). "Transsexual singer stirs up passions". BBC News. Retrieved October 21, 2014.
- ^ Brinn, David (June 26, 2008). "Say no more: Transsexual Israeli tops Lebanese song chart". The Jerusalem Post.
- ^ "Tel-Aviv LGBTQ Center". AWiderBridge. July 10, 2012. Retrieved April 3, 2019.
- ^ Zehavi, Yoav (June 3, 2015). "Gila Goldstein, the first Israeli transgender". TimeOut Israel. Retrieved February 7, 2017.
- ^ Gillman, Jacob (June 3, 2016). "200,000 crowd Tel Aviv streets for annual pride parade". The Times of Israel. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
- ISBN 978-0857728937.)
- ISBN 0521472113.
- ISBN 0521471370.
- ISBN 978-1107108295.
- ISBN 978-9888455751.
- ISBN 1467816663.
- ^ 王玉德 (Wáng Yùdé), 神秘的第三性: 中国太監大写真 ("Secret third sex: a portrait of Chinese eunuchs") (1994)
- ISBN 978-0231546331.. (Chiang argues this is reductive and "flattening".)
- ^ ISBN 0824830776.
- ^ a b Chiang (2012), p. 8
- .
- ISBN 978-1541557505.
- ^ ISBN 978-1137514738.
- ^ a b Chiang 2018, pp. 240–241.
- ^ Chiang 2018, pp. 134–139.
- ISBN 9888390902), p. 233
- ^ "Taiwan's place in Global Trans History". Taiwan Insight. February 7, 2018. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-230-34062-6.
- ^ a b Ben Westcott, China's transgender people driven to self-medicate, report says, May 9, 2019, CNN
- ^ a b Karen McVeigh, China 'failing trans people' as young attempt surgery on themselves – study, May 10, 2019, The Guardian
- ^ ISBN 0230604129), pp. 26-27, 39, 41
- ISBN 1134241941), p. xxix
- ^ Japan urged to lift sterilization requirement for transgender recognition, March 20, 2019, The Japan Times
- ^ Japan's Supreme Court upholds transgender sterilization requirement, January 26, 2019, NBC News
- ^ Farand, Chloe (March 18, 2017). "Japan becomes first country in the world to elect a transgender man to a public office". The Independent. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
- ^ "Japan just elected its first trans man into public office". PinkNews. March 17, 2017. Retrieved March 18, 2017.
- ISBN 135197114X), pp. 121-125
- ISBN 0199732078), p. 124
- ^ ISBN 1438119135), pp. 277-278
- ISBN 147861546X), p. 28
- ^ Tomás Prower, Queer Magic: LGBT+ Spirituality and Culture from Around the World (2018), p. 150
- Times of India
- ^ ISBN 1857288114), p. 227
- ISBN 1351904752), pp. 457-458
- ^ ISBN 1317442644), p. 112
- ^ "Gay and Lesbian Vaishnava Association, Inc". Galva108.org. Archived from the original on October 23, 2013. Retrieved November 2, 2013.
- ISBN 1135954895), p. 77
- ^ ISBN 1429957328), p. 248
- ^ ISBN 0285640364)
- ISBN 1859843530), p. 85
- ISBN 110849255X), pp. 267-268
- ^ a b Rema Nagarajan, First count of third gender in census: 4.9 lakh, Mary 30, 2014, The Times of India
- ^ Tahmima Anam, Transgender Rights, Bangladesh Style, July 2, 2015, The New York Times
- ^ Members of the third gender can vote as 'hijra', April 19, 2019, Dhaka Tribune
- ^ Is Bangladesh on the cusp of electing its first transgender MP?, January 16, 2019, Dhaka Tribune
- ISBN 1440854807), p. 28
- ISBN 0199325367), p. 70
- ^ Randy P. Conner, David Hatfield Sparks, Mariya Sparks (eds.), Cassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol, and Spirit (1997), pp. 19, 67
- ISBN 1472595068), p. 188
- ^ Robert Oostvogels, The Waria of Indonesia: A Traditional Third Gender Role (1995)
- ISBN 1440845255), p. 71
- OCLC 476076313.
- ^ Sharyn Graham, Sulawesi's fifth gender, Inside Indonesia, April–June 2001
- ^ Ibrahim, Farid M. (February 27, 2019). "Homophobia and rising Islamic intolerance push Indonesia's intersex bissu priests to the brink". Australian Broadcasting Corporation News. Archived from the original on February 27, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2019.
- OCLC 439890293.
- ^ a b c Christian Joy Cruz, The Social Experiences of Trans People in the Philippines (2015), in Transrespect versus Transphobia: The Social Experiences of Trans and Gender-diverse People in Colombia, India, the Philippines, Serbia, Thailand, Tonga, Turkey and Venezuela (eds. Carsten Balzer, Carla LaGata, Jan Simon Hutta), pp. 36-43
- ^ Ally Gonzalo, Photographer explores Filipino 'bakla' culture, October 2, 2019, - CBC.ca
- ^ In the Philippines they think about gender differently. We could too, March 3, 2019, The Guardian
- ^ Sam Winter, in Protection of Sexual Minorities since Stonewall (2013), ed. by Phil C.W. Chan
- OCLC 909323355. Retrieved August 19, 2017.
- ^ Stuart A. Schlegel, Wisdom from a Rainforest (2003), pp. 138+
- ^ Helen Cruz: A fairy tale, December 14, 2003, The Philippine Star
- ^ Zofiya Acosta and Amierielle Anne Bulan, Women in Philippine history you should know about, March 8, 2019, Noli Soli
- ISBN 0313353581), p. 37
- ^ ISBN 1134987021), p. 183
- ISSN 1434-4599. Archived from the originalon December 8, 2015. Retrieved November 29, 2015.
- S2CID 143719775.
- ^ Jackson, Peter A. (1989). Male Homosexuality in Thailand; An Interpretation of Contemporary Thai Sources. Elmhurst NY: Global Academic Publishers.
- ^ Amy Sawitta Lefevre, Thailand to recognise "third gender" in new constitution -panel, January 16, 2015, Reuters
- ^ William Cummings, When asked their sex, some are going with option 'X', June 21, 2017, USA Today
- ^ Legal Gender Recognition in Thailand, May 2018, UNDP
- ISBN 978-0-631-23267-4.
- ^ Geen, Jessica (April 6, 2011). "5,000-year-old 'transgender' skeleton discovered". PinkNews. Archived from the original on April 8, 2011. Retrieved August 30, 2020.
- ^ Tann (April 5, 2011). "Grave of stone age transsexual excavated in Prague". Archeology News Network. Czech Positions. Archived from the original on February 4, 2014. Retrieved August 30, 2020.
- ^ "Gay nebo transsexuál? Archeologové objevili podivný hrob" [Gay or transsexual? Archaeologists have discovered a strange grave]. Lidové noviny (in Czech). April 5, 2011. Archived from the original on August 29, 2020. Retrieved August 30, 2020.
- Česká televize (in Czech). Archivedfrom the original on August 29, 2020. Retrieved August 30, 2020.
- ^ Chris, Johnstone (April 20, 2011). "Grave of Stone Age 'gender bender' excavated in Prague". Česká pozice. Archived from the original on August 29, 2020. Retrieved August 30, 2020.
- ISBN 9004295976.
- ISBN 1-57344-180-5.
- PMID 5233741.
- ISBN 978-0761390220.
- ISBN 978-0884141556.
- ^ ISBN 9781317377382.
- PMID 28478088.
- ISBN 9780387299075.
- ^ OCLC 263448435.
- ^ Godbout, Louis (2004). "Elagabalus" (PDF). GLBTQ: An Encyclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Culture. Chicago: glbtq, Inc. Retrieved August 6, 2007.
- ^ Benjamin, Harry; Green, Richard (1966). The Transsexual Phenomenon, Appendix C: Transsexualism: Mythological, Historical, and Cross-Cultural Aspects. New York: The Julian Press, Inc. Archived from the original on July 17, 2007. Retrieved August 3, 2007.
- ISBN 0809140160), pp. 72-73
- ISBN 1312855347), pp. 344-348
- ISBN 0-304-33760-9.
- ^ Roland Betancourt, Transgender Lives in the Middle Agesthrough Art, Literature, and Medicine
- ^ OCLC 1247660706. Retrieved November 18, 2022.
- ^ "4. Non-Standard Masculinity and Sainthood in Niketas David's Life of Patriarch Ignatios". Project MUSE - Trans and Genderqueer Subjects in Medieval Hagiography. Project MUSE. 2021. Retrieved November 18, 2022.
- ISBN 0521551838), p. 49
- ^ ISBN 0500773785), p. 113
- ISBN 0191567884), p. 54
- ISBN 0199839697), pp. 217-219
- ISBN 3110911159), p. 196
- ISBN 0815316607), p. 194
- ISBN 1351207091), p. 266
- ISBN 3319967851), p. 58
- ^ Mariah Cooper, Loki will be pansexual and gender-fluid in new Marvel novel, December 13, 2017, The Washington Blade
- ^ Meilan Solly, Researchers Reaffirm Remains in Viking Warrior Tomb Belonged to a Woman, February 21, 2019, Smithsonian.com
- ^ Laura Geggel, Yes, That Viking Warrior Buried with Weapons Really Was a Woman, February 20, 2019, LiveScience.com
- ^ Gregory of Tours. A History of the Franks. Pantianos Classics, 1916
- ^ Jon Henley, 1,000-year-old remains in Finland may be non-binary Iron Age leader, August 9, 2021, The Guardian: "'The overall context of the grave indicates that it was a respected person whose gender identity may well have been non-binary,' they wrote. If the characteristics of Klinefelter syndrome were evident, Moilanen said, the person 'might not have been considered strictly a female or a male in the early Middle Ages community. The abundant collection of objects buried in the grave is proof that the person was not only accepted, but also valued and respected.'", "Paleogeneticists and academics with expertise in ancient DNA analysis contacted by the Livescience website generally said the study was 'convincin' in showing the person buried in Suontaka was likely to have been non-binary."
- ^ Ulla Moilanen, Tuija Kirkinen, Nelli-Johanna Saari, Adam B. Rohrlach, Johannes Krause, Päivi Onkamo, Elina Salmela, "A Woman with a Sword? – Weapon Grave at Suontaka Vesitorninmäki, Finland", in the European Journal of Archaeology, 1-19 (July 15, 2021), doi:10.1017/eaa.2021.30
- ISBN 0299190935), pp. 118-121
- ^ Lilith. "Kalonymus ben Kalonymus: Transgender History Gets a Pat on the Head". Cuil Press. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
- ^ Greenberg, Steve. "Commemorating Transgender Day of Remembrance". EshelOnline. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
- ^ Cole, Peter. "On Becoming a Woman" (PDF). TransTorah.org. Princeton University Press. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-82232-365-5.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-31779-580-3.
- ISBN 978-0-71906-114-1.
- ^ Dinshaw (1999), p. 109
- ISBN 978-0-34080-846-7.
- ^ Karras & Boyd (1996), p. 103
- ISBN 978-1-84384-427-3.
- ISBN 978-0-47099-877-9.
- ^ Mills 2015, p. 105.
- ^ ISBN 978-0268105594.
- ISBN 041530234X.
- ^ ISBN 0801488303.
- ISBN 023150067X.
- ^ Mills 2015, pp. 121–122.
- The George Washington University.
- ^ Vogt, Kari (1995). The Woman Monk: A theme in Byzantine hagiography.
- ^ Bychowski, Gabrielle (November 1, 2018). "Were there Transgender People in the Middle Ages?". The Public Medievalist. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
- ^ Vogt, Kari (1995). The 'Woman Monk': A Theme in Byzantine Hagiography.
- ^ Heron, Onnaca (2000). "The Lioness in the Text: Mary of Egypt as Immasculated Female Saint". Quidditas. 21 (1): 3.
- ^ Betancourt, Roland (2020). Byzantine Intersectionality: Sexuality, Gender, and Race in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press.
- S2CID 170552544.
- S2CID 2306477.
- ^ DeVun, Leah (2021). The Shape of Sex: Nonbinary Gender from Genesis to the Renaissance. Columbia University Press.
- ISBN 978-3643501448.
- ^ Becatoros, Elena (October 6, 2008). "Tradition of 'sworn virgins' dying out in Albania". Die Welt. Archived from the original on October 26, 2008. Retrieved July 18, 2016.
- ISBN 978-0810861-88-6.
- ISBN 9780815319207.
- ^ Lopez, Oscar (October 1, 2020). "Belgium appoints Europe's first transgender deputy PM". Reuters.
- ^ Ring, Trudy (October 8, 2020). "Belgian Petra De Sutter Is Europe's First Trans Deputy Prime Minister". The Advocate.
- ^ Hirschfeld, MMagnus. Chirurgische Eingriffe bei Anomalien des Sexuallebens: Therapie der Gegenwart [Surgical interventions for anomalies in sex life: contemporary therapy] (in German). pp. 67, 451–455.
- ^ Lili Elbe. andrejkoymasky.com. May 17, 2003
- ISBN 978-3-8394-3180-1.
- ^ Meyer (2015), pp. 311–314
- ^ a b "Lili Elbe Biography". Biography.com. A&E Television Networks. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
- ^ "Lili Elbe: the transgender artist behind The Danish Girl". This Week Magazine. September 18, 2015. Retrieved February 1, 2016.
- ^ "21 Transgender People Who Influenced American Culture". Time. May 29, 2014.
- ^ Lavers, Michael K. (January 4, 2017). "Denmark no longer considers transgender people mentally ill". Washingtonblade.com. Retrieved January 5, 2017.
- S2CID 234533118.
- ^ a b Kates 2001, p. xxi.
- ISBN 978-1441174048.
- ^ Kates 2001, pp. 183–192.
- ^ a b Ryan, Hugh (April 9, 2018). "Chevalier d'Éon was a spy, soldier, celebrated diplomat — and publicly out as trans". them.
- ISBN 978-1441174048.
- ISBN 978-1939594280.
- ISBN 978-1-78775-514-7.
- ^ "Décès de Coccinelle, pionnière de la cause transsexuelle et meneuse de revue (10 October 2006)". Yahoo! France News. Archived from the original on March 11, 2007. Retrieved February 4, 2010.
- ^ "France's first transgender mayor vows to wake up village". France 24. May 25, 2020.
- PMID 33855893.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-323-48408-4. Though Friedreich's paper is clearly alluded to in the text, the book mistakenly cites a 1931 paper by Felix Abraham that does not mention Friedreich's work.
- ^ Friedreich, Johann Baptist (1830). Versuch einer Literärgeschichte der Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten (in German). pp. 31–39.
- ^ ISBN 9780307473134.
- ISBN 978-1780234731.
- ISBN 978-1134041541.
- ^ ISSN 1896-3617.
- ^ Harald Neckelmann, Die Geschichte von Lili Elbe: Ein Mensch wechselt sein Geschlecht (2020), p. 10
- ^ Munro, Donald. "Trans Media Watch". Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved June 13, 2016.
- ^ Kay Brown, Lili Elbe, Transhistory.net (1997)
- ^ Meyer (2015), pp. 271-281
- ^ Harrod, Horatia (December 8, 2015). "The tragic true story behind The Danish Girl". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
- ^ Bauer, Heike (2017). The Hirschfeld Archives: Violence, Death, and Modern Queer Culture. Philadelphia, USA: Temple University Press. p. 92.
- ^ "The Case Van Kück vs. Germany" (PDF). June 12, 2003.
- ^ Fulvio, Bufi (2009). "Presa Ketty, boss "femminiello" Comandava i pusher di Gomorra". Corriere della Sera (February 13, 2009): 19. Archived from the original on September 14, 2015.
- ^ Matthews, Jeff. "The Femminiello in Neapolitan Culture". Archived from the original on May 15, 2011.
- ^ Achille della Ragione. "I femminielli". Archived from the original on May 10, 2011.
- ^ Fae, Jane (July 24, 2015). "Italy becomes fifth country in the world to allow trans people to change gender without a doctor". Gay Star News. Archived from the original on July 24, 2015.
- ^ a b Parogni, Ilaria (February 3, 2016). "Transgender Russians Struggle to Take Their Movement Out of the Shadows". The Nation.
- ^ Elder, Miriam (June 11, 2013). "Russia passes law banning gay 'propaganda'". The Guardian.
- ^ "Transgender Kyrgyz seek unlikely refuge in Russia". BBC News. April 10, 2018.
- ^ a b Patin, Katerina (February 1, 2017). "Russian doctor defies intimidation to authorise gender reassignment surgery". The Guardian.
- ^ "Russian court sides with transgender woman who sued employer". NBC News. April 10, 2019.
- ^ Murray, Stephen O. Pacific Homosexualities. pp. 160–161.
- S2CID 239528122.
- ^ Schluessel, Edmund (May 21, 2017). "100 Years Ago, A Forgotten Soviet Revolution in LGBTQ Rights". Socialist Alternative. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
- ^ Filippova, Anna (July 20, 2022). "'People were dancing on the edge of a volcano'". Meduza. Retrieved July 21, 2022.
- ^ Freiman, Nina (March 4, 2019). "Less equal than others A history of anti-queer persecution in the USSR". Translated by Kohen, Hilah. Takie Dela – via Meduza.
- ^ Sitnikova, Yana (March 13, 2015). "Psychiatric abuse of transgender people in Russia". openDemocracy.
- ^ Gnedinskaïa, Anastassia; Komsomolets, Moskovski (March 17, 2018). "Transsexualité en URSS : les confessions du pionnier du changement de sexe" [Transsexuality in the USSR: the confessions of the pioneer of sex change]. Russia Beyond FR (in French).
- ^ Turovsky, Daniil (July 11, 2018). "The Trans Man Whose Pioneering Surgery Was A State Secret For Decades". BuzzFeed News.
- ^ Emilio Maganto Pavón, El proceso inquisitorial contra Elena/o de Céspedes. Biografía de una cirujana transexual del siglo XVI, Madrid, 2007
- ISBN 978-1317321194.
- ISBN 978-0-292-78746-9.
- ^ Marcia Ochoa, Becoming a Man in Yndias, in Technofuturos: Critical Interventions in Latina/o Studies (2007), edited by Nancy Raquel Mirabal, Agustín Laó-Montes, p. 55
- ISBN 0807079413), p. 33
- ^ Enrique Anarte, LGBT+ victims of Spain's Franco regime fight for compensation, February 11, 2019, Reuters
- ^ "Spanish lawmakers approve bill to let transsexuals change gender without surgery". The Advocate. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
- ^ "Entra en vigor la Ley de Identidad de Géneroy" [The Gender Identity Law enters into force]. El País (in Spanish). Retrieved February 4, 2017.
- ^ "Bülent Ersoy'un 12 Eylül'deki hukuk savaşı" [Bülent Ersoy's legal battle on September 12] (in Turkish). ntv.com.tr. February 27, 2008. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015. Retrieved December 5, 2015.
- ^ Arman, Ayşe (February 24, 2013). "Nil olarak var olduğum müddetçe ben bir yalandım" [As long as I existed as the Nil I was a lie] (in Turkish). Hürriyet. Archived from the original on February 27, 2013. Retrieved February 24, 2013.
- ISBN 0674043278), p. 50
- ISBN 978-1780748313), pp. 215-216
- ISBN 303005683X), p. 192
- ^ Bell, Matthew (October 27, 2013). "'It's easier to change a body than to change a mind': The extraordinary life and lonely death of Roberta Cowell". The Independent. Archived from the original on September 25, 2015. Retrieved October 27, 2013.
- ^ Durrant, Sabine (August 22, 2010). "April Ashley interview: Britain's first transsexual". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on September 22, 2010. Retrieved March 28, 2015.
- ^ "Kenneth Branagh knighted in Queen's Birthday Honours". BBC News. June 16, 2012. Retrieved March 28, 2015.
- ISBN 1844542319)
- ISBN 978-0814791301.
- ^ "Ex-RAAF man wants to change his sex". Mirror. Perth, WA. February 25, 1956. p. 5.
- ^ "Gender Clinic". Monash Health. Archived from the original on January 4, 2018. Retrieved January 4, 2018.
- New Zealand Herald. September 17, 2018.
- ^ ISBN 978-1317008255.
- ^ a b c d Feu'u, Ashleigh (October 14, 2018). "When did you first know you were a fa'afafine?". E-Tangata.
- ^ a b Schmidt, Johanna (September 22, 2015). "Story: Gender diversity Page 3 – Fa'afafine". Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
- ^ Sua'ali'i, T. (2001). "Samoans and Gender: Some Reflections on Male, Female and Fa'afafine Gender Identities". Tangata O Te Moana Nui: The Evolving Identities of Pacific Peoples in Aotearoa/New Zealand.
- S2CID 22812712.
- ^ a b West (2010), p. 817
- ^ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "1. – Gender diversity – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz. [permanent dead link]
- ^ Besnier, Niko; Alexeyeff, Kalissa (2014). Gender on the Edge: Transgender, Gay, and Other Pacific Islanders. p. 164.
- Bibliography
- Chiang, Howard (2018). Sexuality in China: Histories of Power and Pleasure. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0295743486.
- ISBN 0801867312.
- Mills, Robert (2015). Seeing Sodomy in the Middle Ages. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226169262.