Transgene
A transgene is a
The construction of a transgene requires the assembly of a few main parts. The transgene must contain a promoter, which is a regulatory sequence that will determine where and when the transgene is active, an exon, a protein coding sequence (usually derived from the cDNA for the protein of interest), and a stop sequence. These are typically combined in a bacterial plasmid and the coding sequences are typically chosen from transgenes with previously known functions.[1]
Transgenic or
History
The idea of shaping an organism to fit a specific need is not a new science. However, until the late 1900s farmers and scientists could breed new strains of a plant or organism only from closely related species because the DNA had to be compatible for offspring to be able to reproduce.[citation needed]
In the 1970 and 1980s, scientists passed this hurdle by inventing procedures for combining the DNA of two vastly different species with genetic engineering. The organisms produced by these procedures were termed transgenic. Transgenesis is the same as gene therapy in the sense that they both transform cells for a specific purpose. However, they are completely different in their purposes, as gene therapy aims to cure a defect in cells, and transgenesis seeks to produce a genetically modified organism by incorporating the specific transgene into every cell and changing the genome. Transgenesis will therefore change the germ cells, not only the somatic cells, in order to ensure that the transgenes are passed down to the offspring when the organisms reproduce. Transgenes alter the genome by blocking the function of a host gene; they can either replace the host gene with one that codes for a different protein, or introduce an additional gene.[2]
The first transgenic organism was created in 1974 when Annie Chang and Stanley Cohen expressed Staphylococcus aureus genes in Escherichia coli.[3] In 1978, yeast cells were the first eukaryotic organisms to undergo gene transfer.[4] Mouse cells were first transformed in 1979, followed by mouse embryos in 1980. Most of the very first transmutations were performed by microinjection of DNA directly into cells. Scientists were able to develop other methods to perform the transformations, such as incorporating transgenes into retroviruses and then infecting cells; using electroinfusion, which takes advantage of an electric current to pass foreign DNA through the cell wall; biolistics, which is the procedure of shooting DNA bullets into cells; and also delivering DNA into the newly fertilized egg.[5]
The first transgenic animals were only intended for genetic research to study the specific function of a gene, and by 2003, thousands of genes had been studied.
Use in plants
A variety of
Golden rice
One example of a transgenic plant species is
Transgene escape
The escape of genetically-engineered plant genes via hybridization with wild relatives was first discussed and examined in Mexico[10] and Europe in the mid-1990s. There is agreement that escape of transgenes is inevitable, even "some proof that it is happening".[6] Up until 2008 there were few documented cases.[6][11]
Corn
Corn sampled in 2000 from the
Cotton
In 2011, transgenic cotton was found in Mexico among wild cotton, after 15 years of GMO cotton cultivation.[14]
Rapeseed (canola)
Transgenic rapeseed Brassicus napus – hybridized with a native Japanese species,
Creeping bentgrass
Transgenic
Risk assessment
The long-term monitoring and controlling of a particular transgene has been shown not to be feasible.[20] The European Food Safety Authority published a guidance for risk assessment in 2010.[21]
Use in mice
Genetically modified mice are the most common animal model for transgenic research.[22] Transgenic mice are currently being used to study a variety of diseases including cancer, obesity, heart disease, arthritis, anxiety, and Parkinson's disease.[23] The two most common types of genetically modified mice are knockout mice and oncomice. Knockout mice are a type of mouse model that uses transgenic insertion to disrupt an existing gene's expression. In order to create knockout mice, a transgene with the desired sequence is inserted into an isolated mouse blastocyst using electroporation. Then, homologous recombination occurs naturally within some cells, replacing the gene of interest with the designed transgene. Through this process, researchers were able to demonstrate that a transgene can be integrated into the genome of an animal, serve a specific function within the cell, and be passed down to future generations.[24]
Oncomice are another genetically modified mouse species created by inserting transgenes that increase the animal's vulnerability to cancer. Cancer researchers utilize oncomice to study the profiles of different cancers in order to apply this knowledge to human studies.[24]
Use in Drosophila
Multiple studies have been conducted concerning transgenesis in Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly. This organism has been a helpful genetic model for over 100 years, due to its well-understood developmental pattern. The transfer of transgenes into the Drosophila genome has been performed using various techniques, including P element, Cre-loxP, and ΦC31 insertion. The most practiced method used thus far to insert transgenes into the Drosophila genome utilizes P elements. The transposable P elements, also known as transposons, are segments of bacterial DNA that are translocated into the genome, without the presence of a complementary sequence in the host's genome. P elements are administered in pairs of two, which flank the DNA insertion region of interest. Additionally, P elements often consist of two plasmid components, one known as the P element transposase and the other, the P transposon backbone. The transposase plasmid portion drives the transposition of the P transposon backbone, containing the transgene of interest and often a marker, between the two terminal sites of the transposon. Success of this insertion results in the nonreversible addition of the transgene of interest into the genome. While this method has been proven effective, the insertion sites of the P elements are often uncontrollable, resulting in an unfavorable, random insertion of the transgene into the Drosophila genome.[25]
To improve the location and precision of the transgenic process, an enzyme known as Cre has been introduced. Cre has proven to be a key element in a process known as recombinase-mediated cassette exchange (RMCE). While it has shown to have a lower efficiency of transgenic transformation than the P element transposases, Cre greatly lessens the labor-intensive abundance[clarification needed] of balancing random P insertions. Cre aids in the targeted transgenesis of the DNA gene segment of interest, as it supports the mapping of the transgene insertion sites, known as loxP sites. These sites, unlike P elements, can be specifically inserted to flank a chromosomal segment of interest, aiding in targeted transgenesis. The Cre transposase is important in the catalytic cleavage of the base pairs present at the carefully positioned loxP sites, permitting more specific insertions of the transgenic donor plasmid of interest.[26]
To overcome the limitations and low yields that transposon-mediated and Cre-loxP transformation methods produce, the bacteriophage ΦC31 has recently been utilized. Recent breakthrough studies involve the microinjection of the bacteriophage ΦC31 integrase, which shows improved transgene insertion of large DNA fragments that are unable to be transposed by P elements alone. This method involves the recombination between an attachment (attP) site in the phage and an attachment site in the bacterial host genome (attB). Compared to usual P element transgene insertion methods, ΦC31 integrates the entire transgene vector, including bacterial sequences and antibiotic resistance genes. Unfortunately, the presence of these additional insertions has been found to affect the level and reproducibility of transgene expression.
Use in livestock and aquaculture
One agricultural application is to selectively breed animals for particular traits: Transgenic cattle with an increased muscle phenotype has been produced by overexpressing a short hairpin RNA with homology to the myostatin mRNA using RNA interference.[27] Transgenes are being used to produce milk with high levels of proteins or silk from the milk of goats. Another agricultural application is to selectively breed animals, which are resistant to diseases or animals for biopharmaceutical production.[27]
Future potential
The application of transgenes is a rapidly growing area of
As of 2004 there were five thousand known
Transgenes may be used for
Ethical controversy
Transgene use in humans is currently fraught with issues. Transformation of genes into human cells has not been perfected yet. The most famous example of this involved certain patients developing
See also
- Hybrid
- Fusion protein
- Gene pool
- Gene flow
- Introgression
- Nucleic acid hybridization
- Mouse models of breast cancer metastasis
References
- ^ "Transgene Design". Mouse Genetics Core. Washington University. Archived from the original on March 2, 2011.
- PMID 6272397.
- PMID 4598290.
- PMID 347451.
- ISBN 1-58765-149-1.
- ^ PMID 23636378.
- ^ PMID 2643699.
- ^ PMID 9193076.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2015-11-24.
- S2CID 27999792.
- .(subscription required)
- PMID 19143938.
- PMID 19503610.
- S2CID 20530592.
- S2CID 207515910.
- doi:10.1139/b06-135.
- S2CID 15784621.
- PMID 15448206.
- ^ USDA (26 November 2007). "USDA concludes genetically engineered creeping bentgrass investigation—USDA Assesses The Scotts Company, LLC $500,000 Civil Penalty". Archived from the original on 8 December 2015.
- PMID 23056246.
- .
- ^ "Background: Cloned and Genetically Modified Animals". Center for Genetics and Society. April 14, 2005.
- ^ "Knockout Mice". National Human Genome Research Institute. August 27, 2015.
- ^ a b Genetically modified mouse#cite note-8
- PMID 17905790.
- S2CID 24887960.
- ^ PMC 4204076.
- PMID 16008757.
- PMID 18464931.
- PMID 30496390.
- PMID 15158058.
- S2CID 4372110.
- S2CID 9100335.
Further reading
- Cyranoski, D (2009). "Newly created transgenic primate may become an alternative disease model to rhesus macaques". Nature. 459 (7246): 492. PMID 19478751.