Treaty of Kiel
Kieltraktaten (Danish) Freden i Kiel (Swedish) | |
---|---|
Type | Peace treaty |
Context | War of the Sixth Coalition during the Napoleonic Wars |
Signed | 14 January 1814 |
Location | Kiel, Duchy of Holstein |
Parties | |
Language | French |
The Treaty of Kiel (
However, not all provisions of the treaty would come into force. Norway declared its independence, adopted a
Background
In the beginning of the
In 1807, Napoleonic forces
In 1812, Napoleon's forces were decimated in their failed attempt to subdue Russia, and started their westward retreat.[7] Sweden allied with Russia on 30 August 1812, with the United Kingdom on 3 March 1813,[8] and with Prussia on 22 April 1813.[9] Previously, on 23 March 1813, she had declared war on Napoleon.[9] Bernadotte's condition for entering the anti-Napoleonic alliance was the gain of Norway, which the United Kingdom and Russia accepted in May 1813.[9] Prussia however did not acknowledge this claim at first.[9] Thus, Bernadotte hesitated to enter the war with full force,[9] and only engaged in a campaign against Hamburg which on 30 June was re-conquered by allied French and Danish forces.[10] When Prussia finally accepted the Swedish claim to Norway on 22 July, Sweden joined the alliance of Reichenbach concluded between Russia, the United Kingdom and Prussia on 14/15 June.[10] With three armies (North, Main and Silesian, the Northern army under Bernadotte's command), the allies subsequently cleared Northern Germany of French forces. Denmark, who had maintained the alliance with Napoleon because of the Swedish claim to Norway,[9] was isolated and, as a consequence of the war, bankrupt.[11] Bernadotte, now free to attack Denmark after Napoleon's defeat at Leipzig in Mid-October, took his combined Swedish/Russian Army and quickly defeated the outnumbered Danish Army and occupied Holstein and Schleswig during late December 1813. Frederick VI agreed to make peace once it was clear that Bernadotte would occupy Jutland and Zealand (with British naval assistance), if necessary to force the Norwegian cession.[12]
Dano-British treaty
The treaty between the
In article III, the United Kingdom was obliged to return all occupied Danish possessions to the Danish king.[13] Excepted was the island of Heligoland, where the British king was granted "full and unlimited sovereignty".[13]
In article VI, the Danish king joined the anti-
Article VIII was concerned with the abolishment of slave trade.[14] In article X, the British king promised the Danish king to negotiate further compensation for Denmark's territorial cessions to Sweden in a pending final peace.[14] In article XIII, older Dano-British treaties were confirmed.[14]
The articles added in Brussels were concerned with the property of Danish subjects in the colonies or in ceded territories, which was to remain untouched by the British for the next three years, and equal treatment of Danish, British and Hanoveranian subjects, who were not to be prosecuted because of their participation in the war on different sides, nor because of their political or religious beliefs.[14]
Dano-Swedish treaty
The treaty between the
In article IV, the Danish king in his and his successors' name "irrevocably and forever" renounced claims to the
Article VII ruled that Swedish Pomerania was to be handed over to Denmark.[17] In article XV, it was ruled that the Swedish forces were to take over the Norwegian fortresses as soon as the treaty was ratified, and that they were to abandon Swedish Pomerania as soon as the Norwegian fortresses Fredriksten, Fredrikstad, Kongsvinger and Akershus were handed over.[19] In article XIII,[17] the Swedish king promised the Danish king to negotiate full compensation for the cession of Norway in a pending final peace, and the cession of Swedish Pomerania is described as a "proof" of this intention.[19]
In article XII, the king of Sweden promised to maintain the Norwegian University of Christiania, and the Pomeranian University of Greifswald, which was to pass to Denmark according to article VII, and confirmed donations made before the exchange.[17] Also, it was agreed in article XX that subjects of the Danish king could choose within the next six years whether they would finally settle in Norway or Denmark, whereby property in the realm which would not become the permanent residence was to be sold only to inhabitants of this realm.[19] This provision was also enacted with respect to Swedish Pomerania.[19] In article XVI, it was agreed that the governors general and all foreign-born officials of the exchanged territories, as long as they did not decide to remain, were removed from their offices.[19] Article XXI obliged the Danish administration to hand over all civilian and military administrative documents and archives concerning Norway.[13]
Article XVII provided for a mutual exchange of all prisoners of war.
Union between Sweden and Norway
The Swedish crown prince intended to invade Norway to enforce the Treaty of Kiel. This was supported by the majority of people living in Sweden. However, the Swedish elite in Christiania supported resistance. The bishop Johan Nordahl Brun wrote to Claus Pavels and urged his religious colleagues in Christiania to grab their rifles so as to never surrender. There was a brief war but a ceasefire allowed for the union between Norway and Sweden to be established. The Norwegian Parliament voted for a constitution and elected the Swedish king to the Norwegian throne.[20] So Danish sovereignty over Norway was superseded with Swedish sovereignty over Norway. As of 1814 a distinction was made between genuine Norwegians and those allegedly un-Norwegian. The Norwegian elite used this identity labeling to resist Swedification.[21]
Swedish Pomerania
Due to the refusal of Norway to subordinate itself to the Swedish king,
According to Hardenberg's plan, Prussia ceded
East Greenland case
Between 1931 and 1933, Norway contested the Danish possession of all of Greenland at the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague.[3] As of December 2008[update], this was the only case where possession of a polar territory was ever decided by an international court.[3]
The Norwegian side argued that Denmark did not hold rights to any part of the island where she did not exact actual sovereignty, and accordingly proclaimed a Norwegian
See also
- History of Denmark
- History of Norway
- Scandinavia
- Norway in 1814
References
- ^ a b c Schäfer (2002), p. 137
- ^ Dörr (2004), p. 103
- ^ a b c Cavell (2008), pp. 433ff
- ^ a b c d e Olesen (2008), p. 285
- ^ a b c Olesen (2008), p. 287
- ^ Olesen (2008), p. 289
- ^ Büsch (1992), p. 39
- ^ Ghillany, Friedrich Wilhelm; Beck, C. H. (1855). Diplomatisches Handbuch: Sammlung der wichtigsten europaeischen Friedensschluesse, Congressacten und sonstigen Staatsurkunden, vom westphaelischen Frieden bis auf die neueste Zeit [Diplomatic Handbook: Collection of the Most Important European Peace Conventions, Congress Acts and Other State Certificates, from the Westphalia Peace to the Modern Period] (in German). Vol. 2.
- ^ a b c d e f Büsch (1992), p. 60
- ^ a b Büsch (1992), p. 61
- ^ Cranshaw (2007), p. 22
- ^ Barton, Sir D. Plunket (1925). Bernadotte: Prince and King 1810–1844. Pp. 113-116. John Murray.
- ^ a b c d e f g Jenssen-Tusch (1852), p. 168
- ^ a b c d e f Jenssen-Tusch (1852), p. 169
- ^ a b Jenssen-Tusch (1852), p. 165
- ^ Jenssen-Tusch (1852), pp. 165–166
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Jenssen-Tusch (1852), p. 166
- ^ Sundberg (2010), p. 358
- ^ a b c d e f g Jenssen-Tusch (1852), p. 167
- ISBN 9781786736581.
- ISBN 9781786736581.
- ^ a b c d e f g Büsch (1992), p. 104
- ^ a b Cavell (2008), p. 434
- ^ Dörr (2004), pp. 103ff
Bibliography
- Büsch, Otto (1992). Handbuch der preußischen Geschichte (in German). Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-008322-1.
- Cavell, Janice (December 2008). "Historical Evidence and the Eastern Greenland Case" (PDF). Arctic. 61 (4): 433–441. Retrieved 19 June 2010.
- Cranshaw, Friedrich L. (2007). Insolvenz- und finanzrechtliche Perspektiven der Insolvenz von juristischen Personen des öffentlichen Rechts, insbesondere Kommunen. Schriften zum deutschen, europäischen und internationalen Insolvenzrecht (in German). Vol. 7. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-89949-389-4.
- Dörr, Oliver (2004). Kompendium völkerrechtlicher Rechtsprechung (in German). Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 3-16-148311-1.
- Olesen, Jens E. (2008). "Schwedisch-Pommern in der schwedischen Politik nach 1806". In North, Michael; Riemer, Robert (eds.). Das Ende des Alten Reiches im Ostseeraum. Wahrnehmungen und Transformationen (in German). Böhlau. pp. 274–292. ISBN 978-3-412-20108-1.
- Schäfer, Anton (2002). Zeittafel der Rechtsgeschichte. Von den Anfängen über Rom bis 1919. Mit Schwerpunkt Österreich und zeitgenössischen Bezügen (in German) (3 ed.). Edition Europa Verlag. ISBN 3-9500616-8-1.
- Jenssen-Tusch, Georg Friedrich (1852). Zur Regierungsgeschichte Friedrich VI. Königs von Dänemark, Herzogs von Schleswig, Holstein und Lauenburg (in German). Vol. 2. Verlag Schröder.
- Sundberg, Ulf (2010). Sveriges krig: 1630–1814 (in Swedish). Vol. 3. Svenskt Militärhistoriskt Biblioteks Förlag och författaren.