Triticale
Triticale | |
---|---|
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Monocots |
Clade: | Commelinids |
Order: | Poales |
Family: | Poaceae |
Subfamily: | Pooideae |
Supertribe: | Triticodae |
Tribe: | Triticeae |
Genus: | × Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus. |
Species | |
See text | |
Synonyms | |
× Triticale Tscherm.-Seys. ex Müntzing |
Triticale (/trɪtɪˈkeɪliː/; × Triticosecale) is a hybrid of wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale) first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century in Scotland and Germany.[1] Commercially available triticale is almost always a second-generation hybrid, i.e., a cross between two kinds of primary (first-cross) triticales. As a rule, triticale combines the yield potential and grain quality of wheat with the disease and environmental tolerance (including soil conditions) of rye. Only recently[when?] has it been developed into a commercially viable crop. Depending on the cultivar, triticale can more or less resemble either of its parents. It is grown mostly for forage or fodder, although some triticale-based foods can be purchased at health food stores and can be found in some breakfast cereals.
When crossing wheat and rye, wheat is used as the female parent and rye as the male parent (pollen donor). The resulting hybrid is sterile and must be treated with colchicine to induce polyploidy and thus the ability to reproduce itself.
The primary producers of triticale are Poland, Germany, Belarus, France and Russia. In 2014, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 17.1 million tons were harvested in 37 countries across the world.[2]
The triticale hybrids are all
The
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
In the 19th century, crossing cultivars or species became better understood, allowing the controlled hybridization of more plants and animals. In 1873, Alexander Wilson first managed to manually fertilize the female organs of wheat flowers[9] with rye pollen (male gametes), but found that the resulting plants were sterile, much the way the offspring of a horse and donkey is an infertile mule. Fifteen years later in 1888, a partially-fertile hybrid was produced by Wilhelm Rimpau [de], "Tritosecale Rimpaui Wittmack". Such hybrids germinate only when the chromosomes spontaneously double.
Unfortunately, "partially fertile" was all that was produced until 1937. In that year, it was discovered that the chemical colchicine, which is used both for general plant germination and as a treatment for gout, would force chromosome doubling by keeping them from pulling apart during cell division.[10] Triticale had become viable, though at that point the cost of producing the seeds was disproportionate to the yield.
By the 1960s, triticale was being produced that was far more nutritious than normal wheat. However, it was a poorly-producing crop, sometimes yielding shriveled kernels, germinating poorly or prematurely, and did not bake well.
Modern triticale has overcome most of these problems, after decades of additional breeding and gene transfer with wheat and rye. Millions of acres/hectares of the crop are grown around the world, slowly increasing toward becoming a significant source of food-calories.
Species
Triticale hybrids are currently classified by ploidy into three
- tetraploid triticale. Unstable, but used in breeding bridging. Includes the following crosses:
- Secale cereale, genome AARR;
- Alternative crosses, genome ABRR (mixogenome A/B).
- hexaploid triticale. Stable, currently very successful in agriculture. May be produced by Secale cereale × Triticum turgidum, genome AABBRR.
- Triticum aestivum, genome AABBDDRR.
The current treatment follows the Mac Key 2005 treatment of Triticum using a broad species concept based on genome composition. Traditional classifications used a narrow species concept based on the treatment of wheats by Dorofeev et al., 1979, and hence produced many more species names. The genome notation follows Taxonomy of wheat § Genome, with the rye genome notated as R.[11]
Biology and genetics
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
Earlier work with wheat-rye crosses was difficult due to low survival of the resulting hybrid
It is especially difficult to see the expression of rye
Triticale is essentially a self-fertilizing, or naturally
Sr27 is a
Conventional breeding approaches
Top triticale producers | |
---|---|
in 2022 tonnes | |
1. Poland | 5.44 (38.42%) |
2. Germany | 1.93 (13.63%) |
3. France | 1.61 (11.37%) |
4. Belarus | 1.19 (8.4%) |
5. Spain | 0.63 (4.45%) |
6. China | 0.39 (2.75%) |
7. Turkey | 0.32 (2.26%) |
8. Russia | 0.31 (2.19%) |
9. Austria | 0.29 (2.05%) |
10. Czech Republic | 0.21 (1.48%) |
World total | 14.16 |
Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization |
The aim of a triticale breeding programme is mainly focused on the improvement of quantitative
Since the induction of the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center triticale breeding programme in 1964, the improvement in realised grain yield has been remarkable. In 1968, at Ciudad Obregón, Sonora, in northwest Mexico, the highest yielding triticale line produced 2.4 t/ha. Today, CIMMYT has released high yielding spring triticale lines (e.g. Pollmer-2) which have surpassed the 10 t/ha yield barrier under optimum production conditions.[23]
Based on the commercial success of other hybrid crops, the use of hybrid triticales as a strategy for enhancing yield in favourable, as well as marginal, environments has proven successful over time. Earlier research conducted by CIMMYT made use of a chemical hybridising agent to evaluate
Triticale is useful as an animal feed
Lodging (the toppling over of the plant stem, especially under windy conditions) resistance is a
A 2013 study found that hybrids have better yield stability under
Application of newer techniques
Abundant information exists concerning
Introgression
The Sr59
A 2014 study found that Ddw1
Production of doubled haploids
Doubled
Application of molecular markers
An important advantage of
Yield improvements of up to 20% have been achieved in hybrid triticale cultivars due to
A useful molecular marker known as a
Genetic transformation
The
Research
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2021) |
Triticale holds much promise as a commercial crop, as it has the potential to address specific problems within the cereal industry. Research is currently being conducted worldwide in places like Stellenbosch University in South Africa.
Conventional plant breeding has helped establish triticale as a valuable crop, especially where conditions are less favourable for wheat cultivation. Triticale being a synthesized grain notwithstanding, many initial limitations, such as an inability to reproduce due to infertility and seed shrivelling, low yield and poor nutritional value, have been largely eliminated.
Tissue culture techniques with respect to wheat and triticale have seen continuous improvements, but the isolation and culturing of individual microspores seems to hold the most promise. Many molecular markers can be applied to marker-assisted gene transfer, but the expression of R-genes in the new genetic background of triticale remains to be investigated.[52] More than 750 wheat microsatellite primer pairs are available in public wheat breeding programmes, and could be exploited in the development of SSRs in triticale.[52] Another type of molecular marker, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), is likely to have a significant impact on the future of triticale breeding.
Health concerns
Like both its hybrid parents – wheat and rye – triticale contains
In fiction
An episode of the popular TV series
Indeed, in 1953 the
A later episode titled "More Tribbles, More Troubles", in the animated series, also written by Gerrold, dealt with "quinto-triticale", an improvement on the original, having apparently five lobes per kernel.[59]
Three decades later the spinoff series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine revisited quadro-triticale and the depredations of the Tribbles in the episode "Trials and Tribble-ations".[60]
References
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- ^ Bird, S. H; Rowe, J. B.; Choct, M.; Stachiw, S.; Tyler, P.; Thompson, R. D. (1999) In vitro fermentation of grain and enzymatic digestion of cereal starch Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition, Vol 12, pp. 53–61
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