Trojan War
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The Trojan War was a legendary conflict in Greek mythology that took place around the 12th or 13th century BCE. The war was waged by the Achaeans (Greeks) against the city of Troy after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology, and it has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably Homer's Iliad. The core of the Iliad (Books II – XXIII) describes a period of four days and two nights in the tenth year of the decade-long siege of Troy; the Odyssey describes the journey home of Odysseus, one of the war's heroes. Other parts of the war are described in a cycle of epic poems, which have survived through fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets including Virgil and Ovid.
The
The
Sources
The events of the Trojan War are found in many works of Greek literature and depicted in numerous works of Greek art. There is no single, authoritative text which tells the entire events of the war. Instead, the story is assembled from a variety of sources, some of which report contradictory versions of the events. The most important literary sources are the two epic poems traditionally credited to Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, composed sometime between the 9th and 6th centuries BC.[5] Each poem narrates only a part of the war. The Iliad covers a short period in the last year of the siege of Troy, while the Odyssey concerns Odysseus's return to his home island of Ithaca following the sack of Troy and contains several flashbacks to particular episodes in the war.
Other parts of the Trojan War were told in the poems of the
Both the Homeric epics and the Epic Cycle take origin from
In later ages
Legend
Traditionally, the Trojan War arose from a sequence of events beginning with a quarrel between the goddesses Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Eris, the goddess of discord, was not invited to the wedding of Peleus and Thetis, and so arrived bearing a gift: a golden apple, inscribed "for the fairest". Each of the goddesses claimed to be the "fairest", and the rightful owner of the apple. They submitted the judgment to a shepherd they encountered tending his flock. Each of the goddesses promised the young man a boon in return for his favour: power, wisdom, or love. The youth—in fact Paris, a Trojan prince who had been raised in the countryside—chose love, and awarded the apple to Aphrodite. As his reward, Aphrodite caused Helen, the Queen of Sparta, and most beautiful of all women, to fall in love with Paris. The judgement of Paris earned him the ire of both Hera and Athena, and when Helen left her husband, Menelaus, the Spartan king, for Paris of Troy, Menelaus called upon all the kings and princes of Greece to wage war upon Troy.
Menelaus' brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, led an expedition of Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris' insult. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans Achilles and Ajax, and the Trojans Hector and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the Trojan Horse. The Achaeans slaughtered the Trojans, except for some of the women and children whom they kept or sold as slaves and desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned safely to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The Romans later traced their origin to Aeneas, Aphrodite's son and one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to modern-day Italy.
The following summary of the Trojan War follows the order of events as given in Proclus' summary, along with the Iliad, Odyssey, and Aeneid, supplemented with details drawn from other authors.
Origins of the war
Plan of Zeus
According to Greek mythology, Zeus had become king of the gods by overthrowing his father Cronus; Cronus in turn had overthrown his father Uranus. Zeus was not faithful to his wife and sister Hera, and had many relationships from which many children were born. Since Zeus believed that there were too many people populating the earth, he envisioned Momus[9] or Themis,[10] who was to use the Trojan War as a means to depopulate the Earth, especially of his demigod descendants.[11]
These can be supported by Hesiod's account:
Now all the gods were divided through strife; for at that very time Zeus who thunders on high was meditating marvelous deeds, even to mingle storm and tempest over the boundless earth, and already he was hastening to make an utter end of the race of mortal men, declaring that he would destroy the lives of the demi-gods, that the children of the gods should not mate with wretched mortals, seeing their fate with their own eyes; but that the blessed gods henceforth even as aforetime should have their living and their habitations apart from men. But on those who were born of immortals and of mankind verily Zeus laid toil and sorrow upon sorrow.[12]
Judgement of Paris
Zeus came to learn from either Themis[13] or Prometheus, after Heracles had released him from Caucasus,[14] that, like his father Cronus, he would be overthrown by one of his sons. Another prophecy stated that a son of the sea-nymph Thetis, with whom Zeus fell in love after gazing upon her in the oceans off the Greek coast, would become greater than his father.[15] For one or both of these reasons,[16] either upon Zeus' orders,[17] or because she wished to please Hera, who had raised her, Thetis was betrothed to an elderly human king, Peleus, son of Aeacus.[18]
All of the gods were invited to Peleus and Thetis' wedding and brought many gifts,[19] except Eris (the goddess of discord), who was stopped at the door by Hermes, on Zeus' order.
Peleus and Thetis bore a son, whom they named Achilles. It was foretold that he would either die of old age after an uneventful life, or die young in a battlefield and gain immortality through poetry.[25] Furthermore, when Achilles was nine years old, Calchas had prophesied that Troy could not again fall without his help.[26] A number of sources credit Thetis with attempting to make Achilles immortal when he was an infant. Some of these state that she held him over fire every night to burn away his mortal parts and rubbed him with ambrosia during the day, but Peleus discovered her actions and stopped her.[27]
According to some versions of this story, Thetis had already killed several sons in this manner, and Peleus' action therefore saved his son's life.
Elopement of Paris and Helen
The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, one of the daughters of
Finally, one of the suitors, Odysseus of Ithaca, proposed a plan to solve the dilemma. In exchange for Tyndareus' support of his own suit towards Penelope,[34] he suggested that Tyndareus require all of Helen's suitors to promise that they would defend the marriage of Helen, regardless of whom he chose. The suitors duly swore the required oath on the severed pieces of a horse, although not without a certain amount of grumbling.[35]
Tyndareus chose Menelaus. Menelaus was a political choice on her father's part. He had wealth and power. He had humbly not petitioned for her himself, but instead sent his brother Agamemnon on his behalf. He had promised Aphrodite a hecatomb, a sacrifice of 100 oxen, if he won Helen, but forgot about it and earned her wrath.[36] Menelaus inherited Tyndareus' throne of Sparta with Helen as his queen when her brothers, Castor and Pollux, became gods,[37] and when Agamemnon married Helen's sister Clytemnestra and took back the throne of Mycenae.[38]
Paris, under the guise of a supposed diplomatic mission, went to Sparta to get Helen and bring her back to Troy. Before Helen could look up to see him enter the palace, she was shot with an arrow from Eros, otherwise known as Cupid, and fell in love with Paris when she saw him, as promised by Aphrodite. Menelaus had left for Crete[39] to bury his uncle, Crateus.[40]
According to one account, Hera, still jealous over the judgement of Paris, sent a storm.[39] The storm caused the lovers to land in Egypt, where the gods replaced Helen with a likeness of her made of clouds, Nephele.[41] The myth of Helen being switched is attributed to the 6th century BC Sicilian poet Stesichorus, while for Homer the Helen in Troy was one and the same. The ship then landed in Sidon. Paris, fearful of getting caught, spent some time there and then sailed to Troy.[42]
Paris' abduction of Helen had several precedents.
Gathering of Achaean forces and the first expedition
According to Homer, Menelaus and his ally, Odysseus, travelled to Troy, where they unsuccessfully sought to recover Helen by diplomatic means.[46]
Menelaus then asked Agamemnon to help him enforce the oath of Helen's suitors, which was to defend her marriage, regardless of which suitor was chosen. Agamemnon agreed, and sent emissaries to all the Achaean kings and princes to call them to observe their oath and retrieve Helen.[47]
Odysseus and Achilles
Since Menelaus's wedding, Odysseus had married Penelope and fathered a son,
According to Homer, however, Odysseus supported the military adventure from the beginning, and travelled the region with Pylos' king, Nestor, to recruit forces.[49]
At Skyros, Achilles had
Pausanias said that, according to Homer, Achilles did not hide in Skyros, but rather conquered the island, as part of the Trojan War.[52]
First gathering at Aulis
The Achaean forces first gathered at
Following a sacrifice to Apollo, a snake slithered from the altar to a sparrow's nest in a plane tree nearby. It ate the mother and her nine chicks, then was turned to stone. Calchas interpreted this as a sign that Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war.[55]
Telephus
When the Achaeans left for the war, they did not know the way, and accidentally landed in
Telephus went to Aulis, and either pretended to be a beggar, asking Agamemnon to help heal his wound,[59] or kidnapped Orestes and held him for ransom, demanding the wound be healed.[60] Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Odysseus reasoned that the spear that had inflicted the wound must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound, and Telephus was healed.[61] Telephus then showed the Achaeans the route to Troy.[59]
Some scholars have regarded the expedition against Telephus and its resolution as a derivative reworking of elements from the main story of the Trojan War, but it has also been seen as fitting the story-pattern of the "preliminary adventure" that anticipates events and themes from the main narrative, and therefore as likely to be "early and integral".[62]
Second gathering
Eight years after the storm had scattered them,[63] the fleet of more than a thousand ships was gathered again. When they had all reached Aulis, the winds ceased. The prophet Calchas stated that the goddess Artemis was punishing Agamemnon for killing either a sacred deer or a deer in a sacred grove, and boasting that he was a better hunter than she.[39] The only way to appease Artemis, he said, was to sacrifice Iphigenia, who was either the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra,[64] or of Helen and Theseus entrusted to Clytemnestra when Helen married Menelaus.[65]
Agamemnon refused, and the other commanders threatened to make Palamedes commander of the expedition.[66] According to some versions, Agamemnon relented and performed the sacrifice, but others claim that he sacrificed a deer in her place, or that at the last moment, Artemis took pity on the girl, and took her to be a maiden in one of her temples, substituting a lamb.[39] Hesiod says that Iphigenia became the goddess Hecate.[67]
The Achaean forces are described in detail in the
The second book of the Iliad also lists the
Nine years of war
Philoctetes
Philoctetes was Heracles' friend, and because he lit Heracles's funeral pyre when no one else would, he received Heracles' bow and arrows.
Medon took control of Philoctetes's men. While landing on Tenedos, Achilles killed king Tenes, son of Apollo, despite a warning by his mother that if he did so he would be killed himself by Apollo.[76] From Tenedos, Agamemnon sent an embassy to the Priam king of Troy composed of Menelaus and Odysseus, asking for Helen's return. The embassy was refused.[77]
Philoctetes stayed on Lemnos for ten years, which was a deserted island according to Sophocles' tragedy Philoctetes, but according to earlier tradition was populated by Minyans.[78]
Arrival
Calchas had prophesied that the first Achaean to walk on land after stepping off a ship would be the first to die.
The walls served as sturdy fortifications for defence against the Greeks. The build of the walls was so impressive that legend held that they had been built by Poseidon and Apollo during a year of forced service to Trojan King
Achilles' campaigns
The Achaeans besieged Troy for nine years. This part of the war is the least developed among surviving sources, which prefer to talk about events in the last year of the war. After the initial landing the army was gathered in its entirety again only in the tenth year. Thucydides deduces that this was due to lack of money. They raided the Trojan allies and spent time farming the Thracian peninsula.
Achilles and Ajax were the most active of the Achaeans, leading separate armies to raid lands of Trojan allies. According to Homer, Achilles conquered 11 cities and 12 islands.[88] According to Apollodorus, he raided the land of Aeneas in the Troäd region and stole his cattle.[89] He also captured Lyrnassus, Pedasus, and many of the neighbouring cities, and killed Troilus; it was said that if he reached 20 years of age, Troy would not fall. According to Apollodorus,
He also took
Tenos, the so-called Hundred Cities; then, in order, Adramytium and Side; then Endium, and Linaeum, and Colone. He took also Hypoplacian Thebes and Lyrnessus, and further Antandrus, and many other cities.[90]
Kakrides comments that the list is wrong in that it extends too far into the south.
Among the loot from these cities was Briseis, from Lyrnessus, who was awarded to him, and Chryseis, from Hypoplacian Thebes, who was awarded to Agamemnon.[39] Achilles captured Lycaon, son of Priam,[94] while he was cutting branches in his father's orchards. Patroclus sold him as a slave in Lemnos,[39] where he was bought by Eetion of Imbros and brought back to Troy. Only 12 days later Achilles slew him, after the death of Patroclus.[95]
Ajax and a game of petteia
Ajax, son of Telamon, laid waste the Thracian peninsula of which
Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia).[97][98] They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.[99] The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were only saved by an intervention of Athena.[100]
Death of Palamedes
Odysseus was sent to Thrace to return with grain, but came back empty-handed. When scorned by Palamedes, Odysseus challenged him to do better. Palamedes set out and returned with a shipload of grain.[101]
Odysseus had never forgiven Palamedes for threatening the life of his son. In revenge, Odysseus conceived a plot[102] where an incriminating letter was forged, from Priam to Palamedes,[103] and gold was planted in Palamedes' quarters. The letter and gold were "discovered", and Agamemnon had Palamedes stoned to death for treason.
However, Pausanias, quoting the Cypria, says that Odysseus and Diomedes drowned Palamedes, while he was fishing, and Dictys says that Odysseus and Diomedes lured Palamedes into a well, which they said contained gold, then stoned him to death.[104]
Palamedes' father Nauplius sailed to the Troäd and asked for justice, but was refused. In revenge, Nauplius travelled among the Achaean kingdoms and told the wives of the kings that they were bringing Trojan concubines to dethrone them. Many of the Greek wives were persuaded to betray their husbands, most significantly Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra, who was seduced by Aegisthus, son of Thyestes.[105]
Mutiny
Near the end of the ninth year since the landing, the Achaean army, tired from the fighting and from the lack of supplies, mutinied against their leaders and demanded to return to their homes. According to the Cypria, Achilles forced the army to stay.[39] According to Apollodorus, Agamemnon brought the Wine Growers, daughters of Anius, son of Apollo, who had the gift of producing by touch wine, wheat, and oil from the earth, in order to relieve the supply problem of the army.[106]
Iliad
Chryses, a priest of Apollo and father of Chryseis, came to Agamemnon to ask for the return of his daughter. Agamemnon refused, and insulted Chryses, who prayed to Apollo to avenge his ill-treatment. Enraged, Apollo afflicted the Achaean army with plague. Agamemnon was forced to return Chryseis to end the plague, and took Achilles' concubine Briseis as his own. Enraged at the dishonour Agamemnon had inflicted upon him, Achilles decided he would no longer fight. He asked his mother, Thetis, to intercede with Zeus, who agreed to give the Trojans success in the absence of Achilles, the best warrior of the Achaeans.
After the withdrawal of Achilles, the Achaeans were initially successful. Both armies gathered in full for the first time since the landing. Menelaus and Paris fought a duel, which ended when Aphrodite snatched the beaten Paris from the field. With the truce broken, the armies began fighting again. Diomedes won great renown amongst the Achaeans, killing the Trojan hero
Achilles, maddened with grief over the death of Patroclus, swore to kill Hector in revenge. The exact nature of Achilles' relationship to Patroclus is the subject of some debate.[107] Although certainly very close, Achilles and Patroclus are never explicitly cast as lovers by Homer,[108] but they were depicted as such in the archaic and classical periods of Greek literature, particularly in the works of Aeschylus, Aeschines and Plato.[109][110] He was reconciled with Agamemnon and received Briseis back, untouched by Agamemnon. He received a new set of arms, forged by the god Hephaestus, and returned to the battlefield. He slaughtered many Trojans, and nearly killed Aeneas, who was saved by Poseidon. Achilles fought with the river god Scamander, and a battle of the gods followed. The Trojan army returned to the city, except for Hector, who remained outside the walls because he was tricked by Athena. Achilles killed Hector, and afterwards he dragged Hector's body from his chariot and refused to return the body to the Trojans for burial. The body nevertheless remained unscathed as it was preserved from all injury by Apollo and Aphrodite. The Achaeans then conducted funeral games for Patroclus. Afterwards, Priam came to Achilles' tent, guided by Hermes, and asked Achilles to return Hector's body. The armies made a temporary truce to allow the burial of the dead. The Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector.
After the Iliad
Penthesilea and the death of Achilles
Shortly after the burial of Hector,
While they were away,
Judgment of Arms
A great battle raged around the dead Achilles. Ajax held back the Trojans, while Odysseus carried the body away.[131] When Achilles' armour was offered to the smartest warrior, the two that had saved his body came forward as competitors. Agamemnon, unwilling to undertake the invidious duty of deciding between the two competitors, referred the dispute to the decision of the Trojan prisoners, inquiring of them which of the two heroes had done most harm to the Trojans.[132] Alternatively, the Trojans and Pallas Athena were the judges[133][134] in that, following Nestor's advice, spies were sent to the walls to overhear what was said. A girl said that Ajax was braver:
For Aias took up and carried out of the strife the hero, Peleus'
son: this great Odysseus cared not to do.
To this another replied by Athena's contrivance:
Why, what is this you say? A thing against reason and untrue!
Even a woman could carry a load once a man had put it on her
shoulder; but she could not fight. For she would fail with fear
if she should fight. (Scholiast on Aristophanes, Knights 1056 and Aristophanes ib)
According to Pindar, the decision was made by secret ballot among the Achaeans.[135] In all story versions, the arms were awarded to Odysseus. Driven mad with grief, Ajax desired to kill his comrades, but Athena caused him to mistake for the Achaean warriors the cattle and their herdsmen.[136] In his frenzy he scourged two rams, believing them to be Agamemnon and Menelaus.[137] In the morning, he came to his senses and killed himself by jumping on the sword that had been given to him by Hector, so that it pierced his armpit, his only vulnerable part.[138] According to an older tradition, he was killed by the Trojans who, seeing he was invulnerable, attacked him with clay until he was covered by it and could no longer move, thus dying of starvation.[citation needed]
Prophecies
After the tenth year, it was prophesied[139] that Troy could not fall without Heracles' bow, which was with Philoctetes in Lemnos. Odysseus and Diomedes[140] retrieved Philoctetes, whose wound had healed.[141] Philoctetes then shot and killed Paris.
According to Apollodorus, Paris' brothers Helenus and Deiphobus vied over the hand of Helen. Deiphobus prevailed, and Helenus abandoned Troy for Mount Ida. Calchas said that Helenus knew the prophecies concerning the fall of Troy, so Odysseus waylaid Helenus.[134][142] Under coercion, Helenus told the Achaeans that they would win if they retrieved Pelops' bones, persuaded Achilles' son Neoptolemus to fight for them, and stole the Trojan Palladium.[143]
The Greeks retrieved Pelops' bones,[144] and sent Odysseus to retrieve Neoptolemus, who was hiding from the war in King Lycomedes's court in Skyros. Odysseus gave him his father's arms.[134][145] Eurypylus, son of Telephus, leading, according to Homer, a large force of Kêteioi,[146] or Hittites or Mysians according to Apollodorus,[147] arrived to aid the Trojans. Eurypylus killed Machaon[114] and Peneleos,[148] but was slain by Neoptolemus.
Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus went to spy inside Troy, but was recognised by Helen. Homesick,[149] Helen plotted with Odysseus. Later, with Helen's help, Odysseus and Diomedes stole the Palladium.[134][150]
Trojan Horse
The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a new ruse—a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. It was built by
When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they "joyfully dragged the horse inside the city",[156] while they debated what to do with it. Some thought they ought to hurl it down from the rocks, others thought they should burn it, while others said they ought to dedicate it to Athena.[157][158]
Both Cassandra and Laocoön warned against keeping the horse.[159] While Cassandra had been given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, she was also cursed by Apollo never to be believed. Serpents then came out of the sea and devoured either Laocoön and one of his two sons,[157] Laocoön and both his sons,[160] or only his sons,[161] a portent which so alarmed the followers of Aeneas that they withdrew to Ida.[157] The Trojans decided to keep the horse and turned to a night of mad revelry and celebration.[134] Sinon, an Achaean spy, signalled the fleet stationed at Tenedos when "it was midnight and the clear moon was rising"[162] and the soldiers from inside the horse emerged and killed the guards.[163]
Sack of Troy
The Achaeans entered the city and killed the sleeping population. A great massacre followed which continued into the day.
Blood ran in torrents, drenched was all the earth,
As Trojans and their alien helpers died.
Here were men lying quelled by bitter death
All up and down the city in their blood.[164]
The Trojans, fuelled with desperation, fought back fiercely, despite being disorganised and leaderless. With the fighting at its height, some donned fallen enemies' attire and launched surprise counterattacks in the chaotic street fighting. Other defenders hurled down roof tiles and anything else heavy down on the rampaging attackers. The outlook was grim though, and eventually the remaining defenders were destroyed along with the whole city.
Neoptolemus killed Priam, who had taken refuge at the altar of Zeus of the Courtyard.[157][165] Menelaus killed Deiphobus, Helen's husband after Paris' death, and also intended to kill Helen, but, overcome by her beauty, threw down his sword[166] and took her to the ships.[157][167]
Ajax the Lesser raped Cassandra on Athena's altar while she was clinging to her statue. Because of Ajax's impiety, the Acheaens, urged by Odysseus, wanted to stone him to death, but he fled to Athena's altar, and was spared.[157][168]
The Greeks then burned the city and divided the spoils. Cassandra was awarded to Agamemnon. Neoptolemus got Andromache, wife of Hector, and Odysseus was given Hecuba, Priam's wife.[170]
The Achaeans[171] threw Hector's infant son Astyanax down from the walls of Troy,[172] either out of cruelty and hate[173] or to end the royal line, and the possibility of a son's revenge.[174] They (by usual tradition Neoptolemus) also sacrificed the Trojan princess Polyxena on the grave of Achilles.[175]
Aethra, Theseus' mother and one of Helen's handmaids,[176] was rescued by her grandsons, Demophon and Acamas.[157][177]
Returns
The gods were very angry over the destruction of their temples and other sacrilegious acts by the Achaeans, and decided that most would not return home. A storm fell on the returning fleet off Tenos island. Nauplius, in revenge for the murder of his son Palamedes, set up false lights in Cape Caphereus (also known today as Cavo D'Oro, in Euboea) and many were shipwrecked.[178]
- Agamemnon had made it back to Argos safely with Cassandra in his possession after some stormy weather. He and Cassandra were slain by Aegisthus (in the oldest versions of the story) or by Clytemnestra or by both of them. Electra and Orestes later avenged their father but Orestes was the one who was chased by the Furies.
- Southern Italy.[180]
- Ajax the Lesser, who had endured more than the others the wrath of the Gods, never returned. His ship was wrecked by a storm sent by Athena, who borrowed one of Zeus' thunderbolts and tore the ship to pieces. The crew managed to land in a rock but Poseidon struck it and Ajax fell in the sea and drowned. He was buried by Thetis in
- Peiraeus.[183] He was acquitted of responsibility but found guilty of negligence because he did not return his dead body or his arms. He left with his army (who took their wives) and founded Salamis in Cyprus.[184] The Athenians later created a political myth that his son left his kingdom to Theseus' sons (and not to Megara).
- Neoptolemus, following the advice of Helenus, who accompanied him when he travelled over land, was always accompanied by Andromache. He met Odysseus and they buried Achilles' teacher Phoenix on the land of the Ciconians. They then conquered the land of the In Roman myths, the kingdom of Phtia was taken over by Helenus, who married Andromache. They offered hospitality to other Trojan refugees, including Aeneas, who paid a visit there during his wanderings.
- Diomedes was first thrown by a storm on the coast of Lycia, where he was to be sacrificed to Ares by king Argyrippa in Southern Italy.[191]
- Philoctetes, due to a sedition, was driven from his city and emigrated to Italy, where he founded the cities of
- According to Homer, Idomeneus reached his house safe and sound.[194] Another tradition later formed. After the war, Idomeneus's ship hit a horrible storm. Idomeneus promised Poseidon that he would sacrifice the first living thing he saw when he returned home if Poseidon would save his ship and crew. The first living thing he saw was his son, whom Idomeneus duly sacrificed. The gods were angry at his murder of his own son and they sent a plague to Crete. His people sent him into exile to Calabria in Italy,[195] and then to Colophon, in Asia Minor, where he died.[196] Among the lesser Achaeans very few reached their homes.
House of Atreus
According to the Odyssey, Menelaus's fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt, where they were unable to sail away because the winds were calm.[197] Only five of his ships survived.[179] Menelaus had to catch Proteus, a shape-shifting sea god, to find out what sacrifices to which gods he would have to make to guarantee safe passage.[198] According to some stories the Helen who was taken by Paris was a fake, and the real Helen was in Egypt, where she was reunited with Menelaus. Proteus also told Menelaus that he was destined for Elysium (Heaven) after his death. Menelaus returned to Sparta with Helen eight years after he had left Troy.[199]
Agamemnon returned home with Cassandra to Argos. His wife Clytemnestra (Helen's sister) was having an affair with Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, Agamemnon's cousin who had conquered Argos before Agamemnon himself retook it. Possibly out of vengeance for the death of Iphigenia, Clytemnestra plotted with her lover to kill Agamemnon. Cassandra foresaw this murder, and warned Agamemnon, but he disregarded her. He was killed, either at a feast or in his bath,[200] according to different versions. Cassandra was also killed.[201] Agamemnon's son Orestes, who had been away, returned and conspired with his sister Electra to avenge their father.[202] He killed Clytemnestra and Aegisthus and succeeded to his father's throne.[203][204]
Odyssey
Odysseus' ten-year journey home to Ithaca was told in Homer's Odyssey. Odysseus and his men were blown far off course to lands unknown to the Achaeans; there Odysseus had many adventures, including the famous encounter with the
Once in his home land, Odysseus travelled disguised as an old beggar. He was recognised by his dog, Argos, who died in his lap. He then discovered that his wife, Penelope, had been faithful to him during the 20 years he was absent, despite the countless suitors that were eating his food and spending his property. With the help of his son Telemachus, Athena, and Eumaeus, the swineherd, he killed all of them except Medon, who had been polite to Penelope, and Phemius, a local singer who had only been forced to help the suitors against Penelope. Penelope tested Odysseus with his unstrung recurve bow to ensure it was him, and he forgave her.[205] The next day the suitors' relatives tried to take revenge on him but they were stopped by Athena.
Telegony
The Telegony picks up where the Odyssey leaves off, beginning with the burial of the dead suitors, and continues until the death of Odysseus.[206] Some years after Odysseus' return, Telegonus, the son of Odysseus and Circe, came to Ithaca and plundered the island. Odysseus, attempting to fight off the attack, was killed by his unrecognised son. After Telegonus realised he had killed his father, he brought the body to his mother Circe, along with Telemachus and Penelope. Circe made them immortal; then Telegonus married Penelope and Telemachus married Circe.
Aeneid
The journey of the Trojan survivor Aeneas and his resettling of Trojan refugees in Italy are the subject of the Latin epic poem the Aeneid by Virgil. Writing during the time of Augustus, Virgil has his hero give a first-person account of the fall of Troy in the second of the Aeneid's twelve books; the Trojan Horse, which does not appear in the Iliad, became legendary from Virgil's account.
Aeneas leads a group of survivors away from the city, among them his son
At
Dates of the Trojan War
Since this war was considered among the ancient Greeks as either the last event of the mythical age or the first event of the historical age, several dates are given for the fall of Troy. They usually derive from genealogies of kings.
The glorious and rich city Homer describes was believed to be Troy VI by many twentieth century AD authors, and destroyed about 1275 BC, probably by an earthquake. Its successor, Troy VIIa, was destroyed around 1180 BC; it was long considered a poorer city, and dismissed as a candidate for Homeric Troy, but since the excavation campaign of 1988, it has come to be regarded as the most likely candidate.[217][218][219]
Historical basis
The historicity of the Trojan War, including whether it occurred at all and where Troy was located if it ever existed, is still subject to debate. Most classical Greeks thought that the war was a historical event, but many believed that the Homeric poems had exaggerated the events to suit the demands of poetry. For instance, the historian Thucydides, who is known for being critical, considers it a true event but doubts that 1,186 ships were sent to Troy. Euripides started changing Greek myths at will, including those of the Trojan War. Near AD 100, Dio Chrysostom argued that while the war was historical, it ended with the Trojans winning, and the Greeks attempted to hide that fact.[220] Around 1870 it was generally agreed in Western Europe that the Trojan War had never happened and Troy never existed.[221] Then Heinrich Schliemann popularised his excavations at Hisarlık, Çanakkale, which he and others believed to be Troy, and of the Mycenaean cities of Greece. Today many scholars agree that the Trojan War is based on a historical core of a Greek expedition against the city of Troy, but few would argue that the Homeric poems faithfully represent the actual events of the war.
In November 2001, geologist John C. Kraft and classicist John V. Luce presented the results of investigations into the geology of the region that had started in 1977.[222][223][224] The geologists compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo's Geographica. Their conclusion was that there is regularly a consistency between the location of Troy as identified by Schliemann (and other locations such as the Greek camp), the geological evidence, and descriptions of the topography and accounts of the battle in the Iliad, although of course this could be a coincidence.
Since the twentieth century, scholars have attempted to draw conclusions based on Hittite and
Formerly under the Hittites, the Assuwa confederation defected after the
In popular culture
The inspiration provided by these events produced many literary works, far more than can be listed here. The siege of Troy provided inspiration for many works of art, most famously Homer's Iliad, set in the last year of the siege. Some of the others include Troädes by Euripides, Troilus and Criseyde by Geoffrey Chaucer, Troilus and Cressida by William Shakespeare, Iphigenia and Polyxena by Samuel Coster, Palamedes by Joost van den Vondel and Les Troyens by Hector Berlioz.
Films based on the Trojan War include Helen of Troy (1956), The Trojan Horse (1961) and Troy (2004). The war has also been featured in many books, television series, and other creative works.
References
- ISBN 978-0-415-34959-8.
- ^ Rutter, Jeremy B. "Troy VII and the Historicity of the Trojan War". Archived from the original on 9 January 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
- ISBN 0-520-21599-0.
Now, more than ever, in the 125 years since Schliemann put his spade into Hisarlik, there appears to be a historical basis to the tale of Troy
- ^ Wood (1985: 116–118)
- ^ Wood (1985: 19)
- ^ It is unknown whether this Proclus is the Neoplatonic philosopher, in which case the summary dates to the 5th century AD, or whether he is the lesser-known grammarian of the 2nd century AD. See Burgess, p. 12.
- ^ Burgess, pp. 10–12; cf. W. Kullmann (1960), Die Quellen der Ilias.
- ^ Burgess, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Scholium on Homer A.5.
- ^ Plato, Republic 2,379e.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.1, Hesiod Fragment 204,95ff.
- ^ Berlin Papyri, No. 9739; Hesiod. Catalogue of Women Fragment 68. Translated by Evelyn-White, H G. Loeb Classical Library Volume 57. London: William Heinemann, 1914
- ^ Apollonius Rhodius 4.757.
- ^ Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 767.
- ^ Scholiast on Homer's Iliad; Hyginus, Fabulae 54; Ovid, Metamorphoses 11.217.
- ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.168.
- ^ Pindar, Nemean 5 ep2; Pindar, Isthmian 8 str3–str5.
- ^ Hesiod, Catalogue of Women fr. 57; Cypria fr. 4.
- ^ Photius, Myrobiblion 190.
- ^ P.Oxy. 56, 3829 (L. Koppel, 1989)
- ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 92.
- ^ Apollodorus Epitome E.3.2
- ^ Pausanias, 15.9.5.
- ^ Euripides Andromache 298; Div. i. 21; Apollodorus, Library 3.12.5.
- ^ Homer Iliad I.410
- ^ a b Apollodorus, Library 3.13.8.
- ^ Apollonius Rhodius 4.869–879 Archived 18 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine; Apollodorus, Library 3.13.6 Archived 21 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Frazer on Apollodorus, Library 3.13.6 Archived 21 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Alluded to in Statius, Achilleid 1.269–270 Archived 15 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 96.
- ^ Apollodorus 3.10.7.
- ^ Pausanias 1.33.1; Apollodorus, Library 3.10.7.
- ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.10.5; Hyginus, Fabulae 77.
- ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.10.9.
- ^ Pausanias 3.20.9.
- ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History 4 (as summarized in Photius, Myriobiblon 190).
- ^ Pindar, Pythian 11 ep4; Apollodorus, Library 3.11.15.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 2.15.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Proclus Chrestomathy 1
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.3.
- ^ Euripides, Helen 40.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.4.
- ^ Herodotus, Histories 1.2.
- ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.12.7.
- ^ Herodotus, 1.3.1.
- ^ Il. 3.205-6; 11.139
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.6.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.7.
- ^ Il.11.767–770, (lines rejected by Aristophanes and Aristarchus)
- ^ Statius, Achilleid 1.25
- ^ Scholiast on Homer's Iliad 19.326; Ovid, Metamorphoses 13.162 ff.
- ^ Pausanias, 1.22.6.
- ^ Homer, Iliad 11.19 ff.; Apollodurus, Epitome 3.9.
- ^ Philostratus, Heroicus 7.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.15.
- ^ Pausanias, 1.4.6.
- ^ Pindar, Isthmian 8.
- ^ Pausanias, 9.5.14.
- ^ a b Apollodorus, Epitome 3.20.
- ^ Aeschylus fragment 405–410
- ^ Pliny, Natural History 24.42, 34.152.
- ^ Davies, esp. pp. 8, 10.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.19.
- ^ Philodemus, On Piety.
- ^ Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses 27.
- ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History 5 (as summarized in Photius, Myriobiblon 190).
- ^ Pausanias, 1.43.1.
- ^ History of the Pelloponesian War 1,10.
- ^ Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek Nation) vol. A, Ekdotiki Athinon, Athens 1968.
- ^ a b Pantelis Karykas, Μυκηναίοι Πολεμιστές (Mycenian Warriors), Athens 1999.
- ^ Vice Admiral P.E. Konstas R.H.N.,Η ναυτική ηγεμονία των Μυκηνών (The naval hegemony of Mycenae), Athens 1966
- ^ Homer, Iliad Β.803–806.
- ^ Diodorus iv, 38.
- ^ Pausanias 8.33.4
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.27.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.26.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.28.
- ^ Herodotus 4.145.3.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.29.
- ^ Pausanias 4.2.7.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.31.
- ^ Cartwright, Mark (2 August 2012). "Troy". World History Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.30.
- ^ Eustathius on Homer, Iliad ii.701.
- ^ Scholiast on Lycophron 532.
- ^ Thucydides 1.11.
- ^ Papademetriou Konstantinos, "Τα όπλα του Τρωϊκού Πολέμου" ("The weapons of the Trojan War"), Panzer Magazine issue 14, June–July 2004, Athens.
- ^ Iliad IX.328
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.32 Archived 19 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.33; translation, Sir James George Frazer.
- ^ Volume 5 p. 80
- ^ Demetrius (2nd century BC) Scholium on Iliad Z,35
- ^ Parthenius Ερωτικά Παθήματα 21
- ^ Apollodorus, Library 3.12.5.
- ^ Homer, Iliad Φ 35–155.
- ^ Dictis Cretensis ii. 18; Sophocles, Ajax 210.
- ^ ""Petteia"". Archived from the original on 9 December 2006. Retrieved 11 December 2006.
- ^ ""Greek Board Games"". Archived from the original on 8 April 2009. Retrieved 11 December 2006.
- ^ ""Latrunculi"". Archived from the original on 15 September 2006. Retrieved 11 December 2006.
- ^ Kakrides vol. 5 p. 92.
- ^ Servius, Scholium on Virgil's Aeneid 2.81
- ^ According to other accounts Odysseus, with the other Greek captains, including Agamemnon, conspired together against Palamedes, as all were envious of his accomplishments. See Simpson, Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus, p. 251.
- ^ According to Apollodorus Epitome 3.8, Odysseus forced a Phrygian prisoner, to write the letter.
- ^ Pausanias 10.31.2; Simpson, Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus, p. 251.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.9.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 3.10
- ^ See Achilles and Patroclus for details.
- ISBN 9780674060944.
- ISBN 978-0-19-162611-1.
- ^ "Aeschines, Against Timarchus, section 133". Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 21 February 2021..
- ^ Scholiast on Homer, Iliad. xxiv. 804.
- ^ Quintus of Smyrna, Posthomerica i.18 ff.
- ^ a b Apollodorus, Epitome 5.1.
- ^ a b Pausanias 3.26.9.
- ^ Ptolemy Hephaestion, New History Bk6 (as summarized in Photius, Myriobiblon 190)
- ^ a b c d Proclus, Chrestomathy 2, Aethiopis.
- ^ Tzetzes, Scholiast on Lycophron 999.
- ^ a b Apollodorus, Epitome 5.3.
- ^ Tzetzes ad Lycophroon 18.
- ^ Pausanias 10.31.7.
- ^ Dictys Cretensis iv. 4.
- ^ Virgil, Aeneid 8.372.
- ^ Pindarus Pythian vi. 30.
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus ii. 224.
- ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4.75.4.
- ^ Pausanias 1.13.9.
- ^ Euripides, Hecuba 40.
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica iv. 88–595.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.5.
- ^ Pausanias 3.19.13.
- ^ Argument of Sophocles' Ajax
- ^ Scholiast on Homer's Odyssey λ.547.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey λ 542.
- ^ a b c d e Proclus, Chrestomathy 3, Little Iliad.
- ^ Pindar, Nemean Odes 8.46(25).
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.6.
- ^ Zenobius, Cent. i.43.
- ^ Sophocles, Ajax 42, 277, 852.
- Helenus(Proclus, Chrestomathy 3, Little Iliad; Sophocles, Philoctetes 604–613; Tzetzes, Posthomerica 571–595).
- ^ This is according to Apollodorus, Epitome 5.8, Hyginus, Fabulae 103, Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 9.325–479, and Euripides, Philoctetes—but Sophocles, Philoctetes says Odysseus and Neoptolemus, while Proclus, Chrestomathy 3, Little Iliad says Diomedes alone.
- ^ Philoctetes was cured by a son of Asclepius, either Machaon, (Proclus, Chrestomathy 3, Little Iliad; Tzetzes, Posthomerica 571–595) or his brother Podalirius (Apollodorus, Epitome 5.8; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica 9.325–479).
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.9.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.10; Pausanias 5.13.4.
- Oracle at Delphi.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.11.
- ^ Odyssey λ.520
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.12.
- ^ Pausanias 9.5.15.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 4.242 ff.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.13.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 8.492–495; Apollodorus, Epitome 5.14.
- ^ Pausanias, 3.13.5.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.15, Simpson, p. 246.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.14, says the hollow horse held 50, but attributes to the author of the Little Iliad a figure of 3,000, a number that Simpson, p. 265, calls "absurd", saying that the surviving fragments only say that the Greeks put their "best men" inside the horse. Tzetzes, Posthomerica 641–650, gives a figure of 23, while Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xii.314–335, gives the names of thirty, and says that there were more. In late tradition it seems it was standardized at 40.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 8.500–504; Apollodorus, Epitome 5.15.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.16, as translated by Simpson, p. 246. Proculus, Chrestomathy 3, Little Iliad, says that the Trojans pulled down a part of their walls to admit the horse.
- ^ a b c d e f g Proclus, Chrestomathy 4, Iliou Persis.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 8.505 ff.; Apollodorus, Epitome 5.16–15.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.17 says that Cassandra warned of an armed force inside the horse, and that Laocoön agreed.
- ^ Virgil, Aeneid 2.199–227; Hyginus, Fabulae 135;
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xii.444–497; Apollodorus, Epitome 5.18.
- ^ Scholiast on Lycophroon, 344.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.19–20.
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiii.100–104, Translation by A.S. Way, 1913.
- ^ a b Apollodorus. Epitome 5.21.
- ^ Aristophanes, Lysistrata 155; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiii.423–457.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.22.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.22; Pausanias 10.31.2; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiii.462–473; Virgil, Aeneid 403–406. The rape of Cassandra was a popular theme of ancient Greek paintings; see Pausanias, 1.15.2, 5.11.6, 5.19.5, 10.26.3.
- ^ Homer, Iliad 3.203–207, 7.347–353; Apollodorus, Epitome, 5.21; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiii.322–331, Livy, 1.1; Pausanias, 10.26.8, 27.3 ff.; Strabo, 13.1.53.
- ^ Apollodorus. Epitome 5.23.
- ^ Proclus, Chrestomathy 4, Ilio Persis, says Odysseus killed Astyanax, while Pausanias, 10.25.9, says Neoptolemus.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.23.
- ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiii.279–285.
- ^ Euripides, Trojan Women 709–739, 1133–1135; Hyginus, Fabulae 109.
- ^ Euripides, Hecuba 107–125, 218–224, 391–393, 521–582; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiv.193–328.
- ^ Homer, Iliad 3.144.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 5.22; Pausanias, 10.25.8; Quintus Smyrnaeus, Posthomerica xiii.547–595.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.11.
- ^ a b Apollodorus, Epitome 5.24.
- ^ Strabo, 6.1.15.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.6.
- ^ Scholiast on Homer, Iliad 13.66.
- ^ Pausanias, 1.28.11.
- ^ Pausanias, 8.15.7
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.12
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.13.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.14.
- ^ Plutarch, 23.
- ^ Pausanias, 1.28.9.
- ^ Tzetzes ad Lycophroon 609.
- ^ Strabo, 6.3.9.
- ^ Strabo, 6.1.3.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.15b; Strabo, 6.1.3.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 3.191.
- ^ Virgil, Aeneid 3.400
- ^ Scholiast on Homer's Odyssey 13.259.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 4.360.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 4.382.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.29.
- ^ Pausanias, 2.16.6.
- ^ Apollodorus, Epitome 6.23.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 1.30, 298.
- ^ Pausanias, 2.16.7.
- ^ Sophocles, Electra 1405.
- ^ Adam Clarke, Commentary on the Bible, 1831, Emory and Waugh, NY, volume III p. 244
- ^ Proclus Chrestomathy 2, Telegony
- ^ FGrHist 70 F 223
- ^ FGrHist 595 F 1
- ^ Chronographiai FGrHist 241 F 1d
- ^ FGrHist 566 F 125
- ^ FGrHist 239, §24
- ^ Bios Hellados
- ^ Histories 2,145
- ^ FGrHist 242 F 1
- ^ FGrHist 76 F 41
- ^ FGrHist 4 F 152
- ^ Latacz, Troy and Homer, p. 286.
- ^ Strauss, The Trojan War, p. 10.
- ^ Wood, In Search of the Trojan War, pp. 114–116.
- ^ "LacusCurtius • Dio Chrysostom — Discourse 11". penelope.uchicago.edu.
- ^ "Yale University: Introduction to Ancient Greek History: Lecture 2". Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- .
- ^ "Geologists show Homer got it right". Archived from the original on 2 April 2003. Retrieved 9 February 2008.
- ^ Iliad Archived 7 December 2004 at the Wayback Machine, Discovery.
- ^ Wilson, Emily. Was The Iliad written by a woman? Archived 12 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Slate Magazine, 12 December 2006. Accessed 30 June 2008.
- ISBN 978-1-134-57586-2. Archivedfrom the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
- ^ Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek Nation) Volume A. Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon, 1968.
- ^ Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War, 1.12.2.
- ^ Graves, Robert. The Greek Myths, "The Returns".
Further reading
Ancient authors
- ISBN 0-87023-205-3.
- Apollodorus, Apollodorus: The Library Archived 21 September 2008 at the ISBN 0-674-99136-2.
- ISBN 0-674-99533-3.
- Euripides, Helen Archived 21 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine, in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 1. Helen, translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938.
- Euripides, Hecuba Archived 19 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine, in The Complete Greek Drama, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr. in two volumes. 1. Hecuba, translated by E. P. Coleridge. New York. Random House. 1938.
- ISBN 0-674-99133-8. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
- ISBN 0-674-99328-4.
- Proclus, Chrestomathy, in Fragments of the Kypria Archived 20 February 2005 at the Wayback Machine translated by H.G. Evelyn-White, 1914 (public domain).
- Proclus, Proclus' Summary of the Epic Cycle Archived 9 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, trans. Gregory Nagy.
- ISBN 0-674-99022-6).
- Strabo, Geography Archived 9 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine, translated by Horace Leonard Jones; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. (1924)
Modern authors
- Burgess, Jonathan S. 2004. The Tradition of the Trojan War in Homer and the Epic Cycle (Johns Hopkins). ISBN 0-8018-7890-X.
- Castleden, Rodney. The Attack on Troy. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen and Sword Books, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-84415-175-1).
- Davies, Malcolm (2000). "Euripides Telephus Fr. 149 (Austin) and the Folk-Tale Origins of the Teuthranian Expedition" (PDF). Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 133: 7–10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 10 April 2007.
- Durschmied, Erik. The Hinge Factor:How Chance and Stupidity Have Changed History. Coronet Books; New Ed edition (7 Oct 1999).
- Frazer, Sir James George, Apollodorus: The Library Archived 21 September 2008 at the ISBN 0-674-99136-2.
- Graves, Robert. The Greek Myths, Penguin (Non-Classics); Cmb/Rep edition (6 April 1993). ISBN 0-14-017199-1.
- Kakridis, J., 1988. Ελληνική Μυθολογία ("Greek mythology"), Ekdotiki Athinon, Athens.
- Karykas, Pantelis, 2003. Μυκηναίοι Πολεμιστές ("Mycenean Warriors"), Communications Editions, Athens.
- Latacz, Joachim. Troy and Homer: Towards a Solution of an Old Mystery. New York: ISBN 0-19-926308-6).
- Simpson, Michael. Gods & Heroes of the Greeks: ISBN 0-87023-205-3.
- Strauss, Barry. The Trojan War: A New History. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7432-6441-X).
- Thompson, Diane P (2004). The Trojan War: Literature and Legends from the Bronze Age to the Present. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1737-4.
- Troy: From Homer's Iliad to Hollywood Epic, edited by Martin M. Winkler. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2007 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4051-3183-7).
- Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-563-20161-4).
External links
This section's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. (February 2020) |
- Was There a Trojan War? Archived 2012-12-28 at the Wayback Machine Maybe so. From Archeology, a publication of the Archaeological Institute of America. May/June 2004
- The Trojan War at Greek Mythology Link
- The Legend of the Trojan War. Archived from the original on 28 October 2007.
- Mortal Women of the Trojan War. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014.
- The Historicity of the Trojan War The location of Troy and possible connections with the city of Teuthrania. Archived from the original on 23 November 2011.
- The Greek Age of Bronze "Trojan war"
- The Trojan War: A Prologue to Homer's Iliad. Archived from the original on 19 April 2019.
- BBC audio podcast Melvyn Bragg interviews Edith Hall and others on historicity, history and archaeology of the war. [Play]
- Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (about 2500 images related to the Trojan War)
- A New Astronomical Dating Of The Trojan War's End, Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry Archived 28 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine