Troubadour

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A troubadour (English: /ˈtruːbədʊər, -dɔːr/, French: [tʁubaduʁ] ^ⓘ; Occitan: trobador [tɾuβaˈðu] ^ⓘ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a trobairitz.

The troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in

The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love. Most were metaphysical, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar satires. Works can be grouped into three styles: the trobar leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar clus (closed). Likewise there were many genres, the most popular being the canso, but sirventes and tensos were especially popular in the post-classical period.

Etymology

The English word troubadour was borrowed from the French word first recorded in 1575 in a historical context to mean "langue d'oc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century" (Jean de Nostredame, Vies des anciens Poètes provençaux, p. 14 in Gdf. Compl.).^[1] The first use and earliest form of troubador is trobadors, found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon.^[2]

The French word itself is borrowed from the Occitan trobador. It is the

Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir,

Afollon drutz e molhers et espos,

E van dizen qu'Amors vay en biays

(These troubadours, between truth and lies/corrupt lovers, women and husbands, / and keep saying that Love proceeds obliquely).[9]

Methods of transmission from Arab Iberia to the rest of Europe did exist, such as the Toledo School of Translators, though it only began translating major romances from Arabic into Latin in the second half of the thirteenth century, with objectionable sexual content removed in deference to the Catholic Church.^[17]

Bernardine-Marianist

According to the Bernardine-Marianist (or Christian) theory, it was the theology espoused by Bernard of Clairvaux and the increasingly important Mariology that most strongly influenced the development of the troubadour genre. Specifically, the emphasis on religious and spiritual love, disinterestedness, mysticism, and devotion to Mary explained "courtly love". The emphasis of the reforming Robert of Arbrissel on "matronage" to achieve his ends can explain the troubadour attitude towards women.^[18]

Chronologically, however, this hypothesis is hard to sustain, as the forces believed to have given rise to the phenomenon arrived later than it, but the influence of Bernardine and Marian theology can be retained without the origins theory. This theory was advanced early by Eduard Wechssler and further by Dmitri Scheludko (who emphasises the

The classical Latin theory emphasises parallels between Ovid, especially his Amores and Ars amatoria, and the lyric of courtly love. The aetas ovidiana that predominated in the 11th century in and around Orléans, the quasi-Ciceronian ideology that held sway in the Imperial court, and the scraps of Plato then available to scholars have all been cited as classical influences on troubadour poetry.^[19]

Crypto-Cathar

According to this thesis, troubadour poetry is a reflection of

Picauensis uero dux ... miserias captiuitatis suae ... coram regibus et magnatis atque Christianis coetibus multotiens retulit rythmicis uersibus cum facetis modulationibus. (X.21)

Then the Poitevin duke ... the miseries of his captivity ... before kings, magnates, and Christian assemblies many times related with rhythmic verses and witty measures.[28]

Spread

The first half of the 12th century saw relatively few recorded troubadours. Only in the last decades of the century did troubadour activity explode. Almost half of all troubadour works that survive are from the period 1180–1220.^[29] In total, moreover, there are over 2,500 troubadour lyrics available to be studied as linguistic artifacts (Akehurst, 23). The troubadour tradition seems to have begun in western Aquitaine (

The classical period of troubadour activity lasted from about 1170 until about 1213. The most famous names among the ranks of troubadours belong to this period. During this period the lyric art of the troubadours reached the height of its popularity and the number of surviving poems is greatest from this period. During this period the canso, or love song, became distinguishable as a genre. The master of the canso and the troubadour who epitomises the classical period is Bernart de Ventadorn. He was highly regarded by his contemporaries, as were Giraut de Bornelh, reputed by his biographer to be the greatest composer of melodies to ever live, and Bertran de Born, the master of the sirventes, or political song, which became increasingly popular in this period.

The classical period came to be seen by later generations, especially in the 14th and 15th centuries and outside of Occitania, as representing the high point of lyric poetry and models to be emulated. The language of the classic poets, its grammar and vocabulary, their style and themes, were the ideal to which poets of the troubadour revival in

Lives

The 450 or so troubadours known to historians came from a variety of backgrounds. They made their living in a variety of ways, lived, and travelled in many different places, and were actors in many types of social context. The troubadours were not wandering entertainers. Typically, they stayed in one place for a lengthy period of time under the patronage of a wealthy nobleman or woman. Many did travel extensively, however, sojourning at one court and then another.

Status

The earliest known troubadour, the Duke of Aquitaine, came from the high nobility. He was followed immediately by two poets of unknown origins, known only by their sobriquets, Cercamon and Marcabru, and by a member of the princely class, Jaufre Rudel. Many troubadours are described in their vidas as poor knights. It was one of the most common descriptors of status. Berenguier de Palazol, Gausbert Amiel, Guilhem Ademar, Guiraudo lo Ros, Marcabru, Peire de Maensac, Peirol, Raimon de Miraval, Rigaut de Berbezilh, and Uc de Pena are all so described. Albertet de Sestaro is described as the son of a noble jongleur, presumably a petty noble lineage.

Later troubadours especially could belong to lower classes, ranging from the middle class of merchants and "burgers" (persons of urban standing) to tradesmen and others who worked with their hands. Salh d'Escola and Elias de Barjols were described as the sons of merchants and Elias Fonsalada was the son of a burger and jongleur. Perdigon was the son of a "poor fisherman" and Elias Cairel of a blacksmith. Arnaut de Mareuil is specified in his vida as coming from a poor family, but whether this family was poor by noble standards or materially is not apparent.

Many troubadours also possessed a clerical education. For some this was their springboard to composition, since their clerical education equipped them with an understanding of musical and poetic forms as well as vocal training. The vidas of the following troubadours note their clerical status: Aimeric de Belenoi, Folquet de Marselha (who became a bishop), Gui d'Ussel, Guillem Ramon de Gironella, Jofre de Foixà (who became an abbot), Peire de Bussignac, Peire Rogier, Raimon de Cornet, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ.

Trobadors and joglars

The Occitan words trobador and trobaire are relatively rare compared with the verb trobar (compose, invent), which was usually applied to the writing of poetry. It signified that a poem was original to an author (trobador) and was not merely sung or played by one. The term was used mostly for poetry only and in more careful works, like the vidas, is not generally applied to the composition of music or to singing, though the troubadour's poetry itself is not so careful. Sometime in the middle of the 12th century, however, a distinction was definitely being made between an inventor of original verse and the performers of others'. The latter were called joglars in both Occitan and Catalan, from the Latin ioculatores, giving rise also to the French jongleur, Castilian juglar, and English

At the height of troubadour poetry (the "classical period"), troubadours are often found attacking jongleurs and at least two small genres arose around the theme: the ensenhamen joglaresc and the sirventes joglaresc. These terms are debated, however, since the adjective joglaresc seems to imply "in the manner of the jongleurs". Inevitably, however, pieces of these genres are verbal attacks at jongleurs, in general and in specific, with named individuals being called out. It is clear, for example from the poetry of Bertran de Born, that jongleurs were performers who did not usually compose. They often performed the troubadours' songs: singing, playing instruments, dancing, and even doing acrobatics.^[31]

In the late 13th century Guiraut Riquier bemoaned the inexactness of his contemporaries and wrote a letter to Alfonso X of Castile, a noted patron of literature and learning of all kinds, for clarification on the proper reference of the terms trobador and joglar. According to Riquier, every vocation deserved a name of its own and the sloppy usage of joglar assured that it covered a multitude of activities, some, no doubt, with which Riquier did not wish to be associated. In the end Riquier argued—and Alfonso X seems to agree, though his "response" was probably penned by Riquier—that a joglar was a courtly entertainer (as opposed to popular or low-class one) and a troubadour was a poet and composer.

Despite the distinctions noted, many troubadours were also known as jongleurs, either before they began composing or alongside. Aimeric de Belenoi, Aimeric de Sarlat, Albertet Cailla, Arnaut de Mareuil, Elias de Barjols, Elias Fonsalada, Falquet de Romans, Guillem Magret, Guiraut de Calanso, Nicoletto da Torino, Peire Raimon de Tolosa, Peire Rogier, Peire de Valeira, Peirol, Pistoleta, Perdigon, Salh d'Escola, Uc de la Bacalaria, Uc Brunet, and Uc de Saint Circ were jongleur-troubadours.

Vidas and razos

A vida is a brief prose biography, written in Occitan, of a troubadour. The word vida means "life" in Occitan. In the chansonniers, the manuscript collections of medieval troubadour poetry, the works of a particular author are often accompanied by a short prose biography. The vidas are important early works of vernacular prose nonfiction.^[32] Nevertheless, it appears that many of them derive their facts from literal readings of their objects' poems, which leaves their historical reliability in doubt. Most of the vidas were composed in Italy in the 1220s, many by Uc de Saint Circ.

A razo (from Occitan for "reason") was a similar short piece of Occitan prose detailing the circumstances of a particular composition. A razo normally introduced the poem it explained; it might, however, share some of the characteristics of a vida. The razos suffer from the same problems as the vidas in terms of reliability. Many are likewise the work of Uc de Saint Circ.

Podestà-troubadours

A phenomenon arose in Italy, recognised around the turn of the 20th century by Giulio Bertoni, of men serving in several cities as podestàs on behalf of either the Guelph or Ghibelline party and writing political verse in Occitan rhyme. These figures generally came from the urban middle class. They aspired to high culture and though, unlike the nobility, they were not patrons of literature, they were its disseminators and its readers.

The first podestà-troubadour was Rambertino Buvalelli, possibly the first troubadour native to the Italian Peninsula, who was podestà of Genoa between 1218 and 1221. Rambertino, a Guelph, served at one time or another as podestà of Brescia, Milan, Parma, Mantua, and Verona. It was probably during his three-year tenure there that he introduced Occitan lyric poetry to the city, which was later to develop a flourishing Occitan literary culture.

Among the podestà-troubadours to follow Rambertino, four were from Genoa: the Guelphs

Mention should be made of the Provençal troubadour Isnart d'Entrevenas, who was podestà of Arles in 1220, though he does not fit the phenomenon Giulio Bertoni first identified in Italy.

Trobairitz

The trobairitz were the female troubadours, the first female composers of

The trobairitz were in most respects as varied a lot as their male counterparts, with the general exceptions of their poetic style and their provenance. They wrote predominantly

, wrote a song entitled Coblas e dansas, which has not survived; no other piece of hers has either.

The trobairitz came almost to a woman from

Guilleuma de Rosers, who composed a tenso with Lanfranc Cigala, known between 1235 and 1257. There exist brief prose biographies—vidas—for eight trobairitz: Almucs de Castelnau (actually a razo), Azalais de Porcairagues, the Comtessa de Dia, Castelloza, Iseut de Capio (also a razo), Lombarda, Maria de Ventadorn

, and Tibors de Sarenom.

Works

Schools and styles

Three main styles of Occitan lyric poetry have been identified: the trobar leu (light), trobar ric (rich), and trobar clus (closed, hermetic). The first was by far the most common: the wording is straightforward and relatively simple compared to the ric and literary devices are less common than in the clus. This style was the most accessible and it was immensely popular. The most famous poet of the trobar leu was Bernart de Ventadorn. The trobar clus regularly escapes modern scholarly interpretation. Words are commonly used metaphorically and symbolically and what a poem appears to be about on its surface is rarely what is intended by the poet or understood by audiences "in the know". The clus style was invented early by Marcabru but only favoured by a few masters thereafter. The trobar ric style is not as opaque as the clus, rather it employs a rich vocabulary, using many words, rare words, invented words, and unusual, colourful wordings.

Modern scholars recognise several "schools" in the troubadour tradition. Among the earliest is a school of followers of Marcabru, sometimes called the "Marcabrunian school": Bernart Marti, Bernart de Venzac, Gavaudan, and Peire d'Alvernhe. These poets favoured the trobar clus or ric or a hybrid of the two. They were often moralising in tone and critical of contemporary courtly society. Another early school, whose style seems to have fallen out of favour, was the "Gascon school" of Cercamon, Peire de Valeira, and Guiraut de Calanso. Cercamon was said by his biographer to have composed in the "old style" (la uzansa antiga) and Guiraut's songs were d'aquella saison ("of that time"). This style of poetry seems to be attached to early troubadours from Gascony and was characterised by references to nature: leaves, flowers, birds, and their songs. This Gascon "literary fad" was unpopular in Provence in the early 13th century, harming the reputation of the poets associated with it.

In the late 13th century a school arose at

Gallicised". Raimon Gaucelm supported the Eighth Crusade and even wrote a planh, the only known one of its kind, to a burgher of Béziers. Joan Esteve and Bernart both composed in support of the French in the Aragonese Crusade. The Béziers poets are a shining example of the transformation of Occitania in the aftermath of the Albigensian Crusade, but also of the ability of troubadours to survive it.^[33]

Genres

Troubadours, at least after their style became established, usually followed some set of "rules", like those of the

Leys d'amors

(compiled between 1328 and 1337). Initially all troubadour verses were called simply vers, yet this soon came to be reserved for only love songs and was later replaced by canso, though the term lived on as an antique expression for the troubadours' early works and was even employed with a more technically meaning by the last generation of troubadours (mid-14th century), when it was thought to derive from the Latin word verus (truth) and was thus used to describe moralising or didactic pieces. The early troubadours developed many genres and these only proliferated as rules of composition came to be put in writing. The known genres are:

• Alba (morning song) – the song of a lover as dawn approaches, often with a watchman warning of the approach of a lady's jealous husband
• Arlabecca – a song defined by poetic metre, but perhaps once related to the rebec
• Canso, originally vers, also chanso or canço – the love song, usually consisting of five or six stanzas with an envoi
• Cobla esparsa
  – a stand-alone stanza
• Comiat
  – a song renouncing a lover
• Crusade song (canso de crozada) – a song about the Crusades, usually encouraging them
• Dansa or balada – a lively dance song with a refrain
• Descort – a song heavily discordant in verse form and/or feeling
• Desdansa
  – a dance designed for sad occasions
• Devinalh – a riddle or cryptogram
• Ensenhamen – a long didactic poem, usually not divided into stanzas, teaching a moral or practical lesson
• Enuig – a poem expressing indignation or feelings of insult
• Escondig – a lover's apology
• Estampida
  – a dance-like song
• Gap
  – a boasting song, often presented as a challenge, often similar to modern sports chants
• Maldit
  – a song complaining about a lady's behaviour and character
• Partimen – a poetical exchange between two or more poets in which one is presented with a dilemma by another and responds
• shepherdess
• Planh – a lament, especially on the death of some important figure
• Plazer – a poem expressing pleasure
• Salut d'amor – a love letter addressed to another, not always one's lover
• Serena – the song of a lover waiting impatiently for the evening (to consummate his love)
• Sestina – highly structured verse form
• Sirventes – a political poem or satire, originally put in the mouth of a paid soldier (sirvens)
• Sonnet (sonet) – an Italian genre imported into Occitan verse in the 13th century
• Tenso – a poetical debate which was usually an exchange between two poets, but could be fictional
• Torneyamen – a poetical debate between three or more persons, often with a judge (like a tournament)
• Viadeira
  – a traveller's complaint

All these genres were highly fluid. A cross between a sirventes and a canso was a meg-sirventes (half-sirventes).^[34] A tenso could be "invented" by a single poet; an alba or canso could be written with religious significance, addressed to God or the Virgin; and a sirventes may be nothing more than a political attack. The maldit and the comiat were often connected as a maldit-comiat and they could be used to attack and renounce a figure other than a lady or a lover, like a commanding officer (when combined, in a way, with the sirventes).

Peire Bremon Ricas Novas uses the term mieja chanso (half song) and Cerverí de Girona uses a similar phrase, miga canço, both to refer to a short canso and not a mixture of genres as sometimes supposed. Cerverí's mig (or meig) vers e miga canço was a vers in the new sense (a moralising song) that was also highly critical and thus combined the canso and the sirventes. Among the more than one hundred works of Cerverí de Girona are many songs with unique labels, which may correspond more to "titles" than "genres", but that is debatable: peguesca (nonsense), espingadura (flageolet song), libel (legal petition), esdemessa (leap), somni (dream), acuyndamen (challenge), desirança (nostalgia), aniversari (anniversary), serena (serene).^[35]

Most "Crusading songs" are classified either as cansos or sirventes but sometimes separately. Some styles became popular in other languages and in other literary or musical traditions. In

jeu parti. The sestina became popular in Italian literature. The troubadours were not averse to borrowing either. The planh developed out of the Latin planctus and the sonnet was stolen from the Sicilian School. The basse danse

(bassa dansa) was first mentioned in the troubadour tradition (c. 1324), but only as being performed by jongleurs.

Performance

Troubadours performed their own songs. Jongleurs (performers) and cantaires (singers) also performed troubadours' songs. They could work from

Arnaut de Maruelh, had their own jongleurs who were dedicated to singing their patron's work. Arnaut's joglar et cantaire, probably both a singer and a messenger, who carried his love songs to his lady, was Pistoleta

. The messenger was commonplace in troubadour poetry; many songs reference a messenger who will bring it to its intended ear. A troubadour often stayed with a noble patron of his own and entertained his court with his songs. Court songs could be used not only as entertainment but also as propaganda, praising the patron, mocking his enemies, encouraging his wars, teaching ethics and etiquette, and maintaining religious unity.

The court was not the only venue for troubadour performance. Competitions were held from an early date. According to the vida of the

Leys d'amors

A chantar m'er

The only existing song by a trobairitz which survives with music.

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Music

Troubadour songs were usually

.

Grammars and dictionaries

Beginning in the early 13th century, the spread of Occitan verse demanded grammars and dictionaries, especially for those whose native tongue was not Occitan, such as the Catalan and Italian troubadours, and their imitators. The production of such works only increased with the academisation of the troubadour lyric in the 14th century.

Image	Title	Translation of title	Author	Date, place	Character
	Razos de trobar	"Explanations of composition"	Raimon Vidal	c. 1210	Prose guide to poetic composition that defends the superiority of Occitan over other vernaculars. Occitan–Italian dictionary.
	Donatz proensals	"Provençal Donatus"	Uc Faidit	c. 1243	An Occitan imitation of Latin grammarian Aelius Donatus. A rhymary and Latin–Occitan dictionary designed for Italians.
	Doctrina de compondre dictats	"Doctrinal of understanding sayings"	Anonymous, possibly Raimon Vidal	late 13th century	A catalogue and explanation of the different poetic genres. It expands on the Razos and may be the concluding section of the Regles of Jaufre de Foixa.
	Lo breviari d'amors	"Breviary of love"	Matfre Ermengau	begun 1288	A pious encyclopedia, the last section of which, "Perilhos tractatz d'amor de donas, seguon qu'en han tractat li antic trobador en lurs cansos", is an Occitan grammar.
	Doctrina d'acort[37]	"Doctrinal of concordance"	Terramagnino da Pisa	1282–96, Sardinia	A condensed verse adaptation of the Razos, poorly preserved in the manuscripts.
	Regles de trobar[38]	"Rules of composition"	Jaufre de Foixa	1289–91, Sicily	Contains many examples of troubadour verse, designed to augment the Razos de trobar.
	Mirall de trobar	"Mirror of composition"	Berenguer d'Anoia	early 14th century	Mainly covers rhetoric and errors, and is littered with examples of troubadour verse.
	Cançoneret de Ripoll	"Little Chansonnier of Ripoll"	Anonymous	1346, Roussillon or Cerdagne	A chansonnier containing a unique grammar, including a catalogue of poetic genres, expands on the Doctrina de compondre dictats and the Leys d'amors.
	Leys d'amors[39]	"Laws of love"	Guilhem Molinier	1328–37, Toulouse	First commissioned in 1323. Prose rules governing the Consistori del Gay Saber and the Consistori de Barcelona.
	Leys d'amors[39]	"Laws of love"	Anonymous	1337–47, Toulouse	Verse adaptation of the prose Leys.
	Leys d'amors[39]	"Laws of love"	Joan de Castellnou	1355, Toulouse	Final, expanded, prose version of the previous Leys.
	Doctrinal de trobar	"Doctrinal of composition"	Raimon de Cornet	c. 1324 (before 1341)	Dedicated to Peter IV of Aragon, identical in structure to the Leys of Guilhem Molinier.
	Glosari	"Glossary"	Joan de Castellnou	1341	A commentary on the Doctrinal de trobar.
	Compendi[40]	"Compendium"	Joan de Castellnou	before 1341	A catalogue of all the "vices" one can commit by transgressing the Leys etc.
	Libre de concordances (or Diccionari de rims)	"Book of concordances" (or "Dictionary of rhymes")	Jaume March II	1371	An Occitan rhymary for Catalans.
	Torcimany	"Translation"	Luys d'Averçó	late 14th century	A rhymary and Catalan–Occitan dictionary.

Legacy

Transmission

Some 2,600 poems or fragments of poems have survived from around 450 identifiable troubadours. They are largely preserved in songbooks called chansonniers made for wealthy patrons.

Troubadour songs are generally referred to by their incipits, that is, their opening lines. If this is long, or after it has already been mentioned, an abbreviation of the incipit may be used for convenience. A few troubadour songs are known by "nicknames", thus D'un sirventes far by Guilhem Figueira is commonly called the Sirventes contra Roma. When a writer seeks to avoid using unglossed Occitan, the incipit of the song may be given in translation instead or a title may even be invented to reflect the theme of the work. Especially in translations designed for a popular audience, such as Ezra Pound's, English titles are commonly invented by the translator/editor. There are examples, however, of troubadour songs given Occitan titles in the manuscripts, such as an anonymous pastorela that begins Mentre per una ribeira, which is entitled Porquieira.

Table of chansonniers

The number of Occitan parchment chansonniers given as extant varies between authors, depending on how they treat fragmentary and multilingual manuscripts. Conventionally, fragments are classified as fragments of the surviving chansonnier they most closely resemble and not as chansonniers in their own right. Some chansonniers have received both Occitan and French letters: troubadour D is trouvère H, W is M and X is U. The lettering (siglas) was introduced by Karl Bartsch, who placed sources he considered more reliable higher in the alphabet. This system is imperfect, however, since many of the chansonniers produced for an Italian audience are heavily edited and do not necessarily more closely resemble the original compositions. While parchment chansonniers are more durable, paper ones also exist and have received lower-case siglas.^[41][42]

Image	Troubadour manuscript letter (sigla)	Provenance (place of origin, date)	Location (library, city)	Shelfmark (with external link to digitization, where available)	Notes
	A	Lombardy, 13th century	Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Latin 5232
	B	Occitania, 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 1592
	C	Occitania, 14th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 856
	D	Lombardy, 12 August 1254	Biblioteca Estense, Modena	α.R.4.4 = Kg.4.MS2 = E.45	The Poetarum Provinciali.
	E	Occitania, 14th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 1749
	F	Lombardy, 14th century	Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Chigi L.IV.106
	G	Venetia , late 13th century	Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milan	R 71 sup.	Contains troubadour music.
	H	Lombardy, late 13th century	Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Latin 3207
	I	Lombardy, 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 854
	J	Occitania, 14th century	Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence	Conventi Soppressi F.IV.776
	K	Lombardy, 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 12473
	L	Lombardy, 14th century	Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Latin 3206
	M	Lombardy, 14th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 12474
	N	Italy, ca. 1285-1300	Pierpont Morgan, New York	819	The Philipps Manuscript.
	O	Lombardy, 14th century	Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Latin 3208
	P	Lombardy, 1310	Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence	Plut.XLI.42
	Q	Lombardy, 14th century	Biblioteca Riccardiana, Florence	2909
	R	Toulousain or Rouergue, 14th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 22543	Contains more troubadour music than any other manuscript. Perhaps produced for Henry II of Rodez.
	S	Lombardy, 13th century	Bodleian Library, Oxford	Douce 269
	Sg	Catalonia, 14th century	Biblioteca de Catalunya, Barcelona	146	The famous Cançoner Gil. Called Z in the reassignment of letter names by François Zufferey.
	T	Lombardy, late 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 15211
	U	Lombardy, 14th century	Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence	Plut.XLI.43
	V	Catalonia, 1268	Biblioteca Marciana, Venice	fr. App. cod. XI
	W	perhaps Artois, 1254–c. 1280	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 844	Also trouvère manuscript M. Contains the Charles I of Naples . Contains troubadour music.
	X	Lorraine , 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 20050	Chansonnier de Saint-Germain-des-Prés. Also trouvère manuscript U and therefore has marks of French influence. Contains troubadour music. Owned by Saint-Germain-des-Prés in the 18th century.
	Y	France/Lombardy, 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 795
	Z	Occitania, 13th century	Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 1745
	a		Biblioteca Riccardiana, Florence	2814	Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Bernart Amoros.
	a1		Biblioteca Estense, Modena	Gamma.N.8.4.11–13 = Càmpori Appendice 426, 427, 494	Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Bernart Amoros.
	b		Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Barberiniani 4087	Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Miquel de la Tor.
	c		Biblioteca Laurenziana, Florence	Plut. XC inferiore 26
	d		Staatsbibliothek, Berlin	Phillipps 1910	Pillet-Carstens N2, since Pillet-Carstens d is a mere copy of K.
	e		Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Latin 7182
	e (Pillet-Carstens)		Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome	Barberiniani 3965	Copy of a lost manuscript compiled by Miquel de la Tor.
	f		Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris	BN f.f. 12472

Notes

References

• Abraham, Mary C. (2012) "The Rhetoric of the Troubadours" Musical Offerings: Vol. 1: No. 1, Article 1.
• Akehurst, F. R. P., and Davis, Judith M., edd. (1995). A Handbook of the Troubadours. Berkeley: University of California Press.
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• Aubrey, Elizabeth (1989). "References to Music in Old Occitan Literature." Acta Musicologica, 61:2 (May–August), pp. 110–149.
• Boase, Roger (1977). The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love: A Critical Study of European Scholarship. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
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• Chaytor, Henry John (1912). The Troubadours. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Gaunt, Simon, and
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• Gosse, Edmund William (1911). "Troubadour" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica
  . Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 308–311.
• Jones, W. Powell (1931). "The Jongleur Troubadours of Provence." PMLA, 46:2 (June), pp. 307–311.
• Menocal, María Rosa (1981). "Close Encounters in Medieval Provence: Spain's Role in the Birth of Troubadour Poetry." Hispanic Review, 49:1 (Williams Memorial Issue, Winter), pp. 43–64.
• Paden, William D. (2005) "Troubadours and History" (pp. 157–182). The world of Eleanor of Aquitaine : literature and society in southern France between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, edd. Marcus Bull and Catherine Léglu. Woodbridge: Boydell Press.
  ISBN 1-84383-114-7
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• Riquer, Martín de
  . Los trovadores: historia literaria y textos. 3 vol. Barcelona: Planeta, 1975.
• Silverstein, Theodore (1949). "Andreas, Plato, and the Arabs: Remarks on Some Recent Accounts of Courtly Love." Modern Philology, 47:2 (November), pp. 117–126.
• Smythe, Barbara (1966). Trobador Poets: Selections from the Poems of Eight Trobadors, Translated from the Provençal with Introduction & Notes. New York: Cooper Square Publishers.
• Warren, F. M. (1912). "The Troubadour Canso and Latin Lyric Poetry." Modern Philology, 9:4 (April), pp. 469–487.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Troubadours.

• Database of extant Troubadour melodies
• Literary Encyclopedia: Troubadour.
• The University of Naples' troubadours' text collection
• Complete works of the major troubadours
• Books about Troubadours
• Said I. Abdelwahed. Troubadour Poetry: An Intercultural Experience.
• Courtly Site Archived 2014-08-17 at the Wayback Machine - site on courtly love, literature, troubadours
• Pound, Ezra (October 1913). "Troubadors: Their Sorts and Conditions". The Quarterly Journal. 219: 426–440.