Monguor people
This article may contain verify the text.(November 2009) ) |
2010 census) | |
Regions with significant populations | |
---|---|
China: Qinghai and Gansu | |
Languages | |
Monguor and Wutun | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Yellow Sect (or Tibetan) Buddhism, Taoism, and Christianity | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Mongolic peoples |
The Monguor (Monguor language: Mongghul), the Tu people (Chinese: 土族), the White Mongol or the Tsagaan Mongol, are Mongolic people and one of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China. The "Tu" ethnic category was created in the 1950s.
According to the 2000 census, the total population was 241,198, who mostly lived in the
Their culture and the social organizations have been influenced by Tibetan Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and local beliefs. A few Tu in Huzhu and Minhe are Christian, the result of on-going American and Korean missionary work in the area.
Ethnic origins
The ethnic history of the Monguor is contested. It has been variously suggested that their origins are related to the Tuyuhun Xianbei, to Mongol troops who came to the current Qinghai-Gansu area during the time of the Mongol conquests, to the Shatuo and/or to the Han Chinese.[1][2]
Terminology
Origins
Some references argue that the Chinese term "Tu" was derived from the name of Tuyühu
The name "Tu" was most likely associated with a derogatory meaning and "indigenous people". Its derogatory undertone came from the concurrent meaning of the Chinese character "Tu" for "soil." The ethnonym "Tu" is increasingly a self-reference.
Monguor
The reference of "Monguor" in the Western publications came from their self-reference as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols"). It was derived from their origins from the Murong Xianbei, from whom Tuyühu Khan separated and who had been historically referred to as "the White Section" or "Bai Bu," due to their lighter skin.[7][8][9] The term "Monguor" was first used by the European Catholic missionaries, Smedt and Mosaert, who studied the Monguor language and compiled a Monguor-French dictionary in the beginning of the twentieth century.[10][11][12][13][14][15] Subsequently, the Flemish Catholic missionary, Louis Schram, made it into an international name through three volumes of extensive reports based on his experiences from having lived among them from 1911 to 1922.[16][17][18] The term is a variant pronunciation of "Mongol" in the Monguor language, characterized by the final "-r" in place of "-l" in the Mongolian language.[19]
Despite that "Monguor" was made into an international name for the "Tu," it is not representative: the reference is only used by the Monguor in Huzhu and Datong counties in
Genetic studies
Sequences in the DNA of the Tu people indicate that Greeks mixed with an East Asian population around 1200 AD, contributing about 7,7% to the Tu genepool. The source of this European DNA might have been merchants travelling the Silk Road.[20][21] This admixture may come from an earlier period as many of their carnival-like festivals and masked fertility rituals have similarities in the Hellenistic times with Dionysian representations, not in Byzantine Christian-era Greek celebrations.[22]
Distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in Monguor:[23]
O=38.85(O2=31.42,O1a=4.13,O1b=3.3)
D=14.87
N=11.57
C=9.09
J=5.79
others=5.78
History
Donghu
Their earliest origins from the Donghu are reflected in their account of the unique wedding ceremony attributed to Madam Lushi,[24] who organized an ambush through an elaborate banquet combined with liquor and singing in order to subdue a bully named "Wang Mang".[25][26][27][28][29] In historical terms, the "Wang Mang" people were recorded more than four thousand years ago as physically robust and active on the west of the present Liaoning, whose culture was associated with the Hongshan Culture.[30][31][32] In archaeological terms, the Hongshan Culture gradually gave rise to the Lower Xiajiadian Culture and represented the transition toward the bronze technology. It eventually evolved into the Upper Xiajidian Culture, which was associated with the Donghu and characterized by the practice of agriculture and animal husbandry supplemented by handicrafts and bronze art. The Donghu was a federation formed from the Donghu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei.
Among the northern ethnic groups, the Donghu was the earliest to evolve into a state of civilization and first developed
Xianbei
As the Wuhuan and Xiongnu came to be worn out from the lengthy battles, the Xianbei preserved their strengths by moving northward to Mt. Xianbei. In the first century, the Xianbei defeated the Wuhuan and northern Xiongnu, and developed into a powerful state under the leadership of their elected Khan, Tanshihuai. In the third century, the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 BC) disintegrated into three kingdoms, including the Cao Wei (220–265) in the north, the Eastern Wu (222–280) in the south, and the Shu Han (221–263) in the southwest. In 235, the Cao Wei assassinated the last Khan of the Xianbei, Kebineng, and caused disintegration in the Xianbei Kingdom. Thereafter, the Xianbei pushed their way inside the Great Wall of China and established extensive presence in China.
During the Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439) period, the Xianbei founded six kingdoms: the Former Yan (281–370), Western Yan (384–394), Later Yan (383–407), Southern Yan (398–410), Western Qin (385–430) and Southern Liang (397–414). Most of them were unified by the Tuoba Xianbei, who established the Northern Wei (386–535), which was the first of the Northern dynasties (386–581) founded by the Xianbei.[35][36][37] In 534, the Northern Wei split into an Eastern Wei (534–550) and a Western Wei (535–556). The former evolved into the Northern Qi (550–577), and the latter into the Northern Zhou (557–581), while the Southern dynasties were pushed to the south of the Yangtze. In 581, the prime minister of Northern Zhou, Yang Jian, usurped the throne and founded the Sui dynasty (581–618) as Emperor Wen of Sui. His son, Emperor Yang of Sui, annihilated the Chen dynasty (557–589) and unified northern and southern China, thereby bringing an end to the Northern and Southern dynasties era. Over the course of this period, the Xianbei who entered into China were immersed among the Chinese and later classified into "Han". Yet, not all branches of the Xianbei shared this fate. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, Tuyühu, a branch of the Murong Xianbei, undertook a westward migration that allowed them and those who followed them to develop in a different path.
Westward migration
The separation of Tuyühu from the Murong
After Tuyühu Khan departed from the northeast, Murong Wei composed an "Older Brother’s Song," or "the Song of A Gan:" "A Gan" is Chinese transcription of "a ga" for "older brother" in the Xianbei language.[5][38] The song lamented his sadness and longing for Tuyühu. Legends accounted that Murong Wei often sang it until he died and the song got spread into central and northwest China. The Murong Xianbei whom he had led successively founded the Former Yan (281–370), Western Yan (384–394), Later Yan (383–407), and Southern Yan (398–410). Their territories encompassed, at their height, the present Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and Henan, and their capitals included Beijing and other cities. Through these establishments, they were immersed among the Chinese, whereas the Xianbei who followed Tuyühu Khan preserved their language and culture.
Mt. Xianbei
In the extensive migrations that the Xianbei undertook in the northeast, northern, and northwest China, the name of Mt. Xianbei was found along their trajectories. The earliest recorded Mt. Xianbei was in the southern portions of
, which holds the most densely populated Monguor settlement, Mt. Xianbei stands in the west, upon which sits the ancestral shrine of the Xianbei Khans.Tuyuhun Empire
After Tuyühu Khan died in
Tibet
The
Rise of Tibet
In the beginning of the
After its fall in 670, the Tuyühu Empire split into an Eastern and Western Kingdom. The Eastern Kingdom existed on the eastern side of the
Western Xia Empire
The
Tangut-Xixia
The English reference of "Tangut-Xixia" was derived from the combination of the Mongolian reference of "Tangut" and the Chinese reference as "Xixia" or "Western Xia." The Chinese reference was derived from the location of the empire on the western side of the Yellow River, in contrast to the Liao (916–1125) and Jin on its east. The Mongolian usage of "Tangut" most likely referred to the "Donghu people;" "-t" in Mongolian language means "people".[52][53] Whereas "Donghu" was a Chinese transcription, its Mongolian reference was "Tünghu".[54] By the time that the Mongols emerged in the thirteenth century, the only "Donghu people" who existed were the "Tu" in Western Xia.
That the Mongols referred to Western Xia as "Tangut" to represent the founding ethnic group, the Tuyühu Xianbei, is consistent with the theories of the Mongol origins postulated by the Outer Mongolian scholars, who have held that the Mongols had descended from the
Mongols, Khitans, and Jurchens
When the Mongols emerged as a mighty power in the thirteenth century, a reverse occurred in the ethnonyms of the Xianbei and Mongols. This was represented in the reference of the Xianbei descendants as "Chaghan Monguor" (or "White Mongols"), which gave rise to the ethnonym of "Monguor" known in the Western publications. The term "White Mongols," or "Bai Menggu," first occurred when Genghis Khan united the Mongols to rise up in Mongolia in 1206. The Xianbei descendants who resided near Mt. Yin self-proclaimed to be "White Mongols" and joined them. They received the same treatment as the Mongols and partook in their westward conquests in Central Asia and Europe.[57]
As waves and waves of the Xianbei went south and westward to establish different empires, those who remained in the northeast emerged as major powers later to rule over China. While the "Mongol Xianbei" (or "Mengwu
After the Xianbei vacated from the northeast, the
Xia title
The full national title of
Current status
The
Culture
Most Monguor in rapidly changing rural settlements today practice sedentary agriculture, supplemented by minimum animal husbandry, and seasonal work in towns and cities. Those who have succeeded in the Chinese educational system take up government jobs in a wide range of academic, medical, and business fields.
Traditional Monguor culture and language have become endangered.[75][76] Traditional events like weddings, Nadun, funerals, and New Year rituals are increasingly abbreviated and traditional songs, riddles, folktales, and proverbs are vanishing.[citation needed]
Religion
In most villages, a
Nadun and Anzhao
Distinctive cultural events take place throughout the year. Whereas the common festival held during the
Wedding songs
The traditional weddings of the Monguor differ markedly. In Minhe County, elaborate rules of courtesy and appropriateness were at work. Many songs "daola" were sung for days and nights with great variations in melody and contents.[86][87] Wherever the Monguor go, they take their songs with them, which can be heard in parties, banquets, and at gatherings in cities where they work.
References
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- ^ Wu, Xinfu [伍新福] (1999). Zhongguo Miao zu tong shi [A comprehensive history of the Chinese Hmong] 中国苗族通史. Guiyang [贵阳市], Guizhou min zu chu ban she [Guizhou Nationalities Press] 贵州民族出版社. p. 25–30.
- ^ Schein, Louisa (2000). Minority rules: the Miao and the feminine in China's cultural politics. Durham, Duke University Press. p. 37–38.
- ^ Li, Fanwen [李范文] (2005). Xixia tong shi [Comprehensive History of Western Xia] 西夏通史. Beijing [北京] and Yinchuan [银川], Ren min chu ban she [People's Press] 人民出版社; Ningxia ren min chu ban she [Ningxia People's Press] 宁夏人民出版社. p. 42.
- ^ Cen, Xiuwen [岑秀文] (1993). Miaozu [The Miao Nationality] 苗族. Beijing [北京], Min zu chu ban she [Nationalities Press] 民族出版社. p. 5.
- ^ Lesdain, Jacques (1908). From Pekin to Sikkim through the Ordos, the Gobi Desert and Tibet. London: J. Murray.
- ^ Schram, Louis M. J. (1954). "The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier. Their Origin, History, and Social Organization." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 44(1): 1–138. p. 25.
- ^ Nietupski, Paul (2006). Louis Schram and the Study of Social and Political History. The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier. Louis M. J. Schram and Kevin Charles Stuart (editor). Xining, Plateau Publications: 30–36. p. 32.
- ^ Li, Peiye [李培业] (1995). "Xi xia huang zu hou yi kao [Investigation on the descendants of the royal family of Western Xia] 西夏皇族后裔考." Xi bei da xue xue bao [Journal of Northwest University] 西北大学学报 88 (3): 46–52.
- ^ Da, Song [大松] (1996). "Li pei ye shi xi xia huang zu hou yi [Li Peiye is the descendant of the royal family of Western Xia] 李培业是西夏皇族后裔." Qi lu zhu tan [Qilu Abacus Forum] 齐鲁珠坛 (6): 26.
- ^ Li, Peiye [李培业] (1997). "Xi xia huang zu hou yi zai kao [Reinvestigation on the descendants of the royal family of Western Xia] 西夏皇族后裔再考." Xi Qiang wen hua [West Qiang Culture] 西羌文化.
- ^ Li, Peiye [李培业] (1998). Xi xia li shi shi pu [Genealogical records of Li Clan of Western Xia] 西夏李氏世谱. Shenyang [沈阳], Liaoning min zu chu ban she [Liaoning Nationalities Press] 辽宁民族出版社.
- ^ Lü, Jianfu [呂建福] (2005). "Li tu si xian shi bian zheng [A Textual Analysis of the Ancestral Origins of Li Tusi] 李土司先世辨正." Xi bei min zu yan jiu [Northwest Ethno-National Studies] 西北民族研究 46(3): 119–129.
- ^ Schram (1961). The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier: Part III. Records of the Monguor Clans. History of the Monguors in Huangchung and the Chronicles of the Lu Family. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society.
- ^ Slater, Keith W. (2003). A grammar of Mangghuer: a Mongolic language of China's Quinghai-Gansu Sprachbund. London: Routledge. Referenced in the Endangered Languages Project.
- ^ Pullinen, Aila. (2015). "Mangghuer Embroidery: A Vanishing Tradition." in Gerald Roche and CK Stuart (eds), Asian Highlands Perspectives 36: Mapping the Monguor, pp. 178–188, 301–332. Retrieved from Academia.edu.
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- ^ Ma, Guangxing (1990). "Wedding, Etiquette, and Traditional Songs of the Minhe Region Tu (translated by Jun Hu and Kevin Stuart)." Asian Folklore Studies 49 (2): 197–222.
- ^ Hu, Jun and Kevin Stuart (1992). "The Guanting Tu (Monguor) wedding ceremonies and songs." Anthropos 87: 109–132.
Further reading
- Anonymous (1977). Pater Lodewijk, Jozef, Maria Schram (1883–1971), "Een Brugs missionaris en etnoloog." Haec Olim 21: 16–24.
- Dpal ldan bkra shis, Hu Jun, Hu Ping, Limusishiden (Li Dechun), Keith Slater, Kevin Stuart, Wang Xianzhen, and Zhu Yongzhong (1996). "Language Materials of China’s Monguor Minority: Huzhu Mongghul and Minhe Mangghuer." Sino-Platonic Papers No 69.
- Dwyer, Arienne M (2005). "Language Contact and Variation: A Discourse-based Grammar of Monguor."
- Feng Lide and Kevin Stuart (1992). "Interethnic Cultural Contact on the Inner Asian Frontier: The Gangou People of Minhe County, Qinghai." Sino Platonic Papers No 33.
- Field, Kenneth L (1997). A Grammatical Overview of Santa Mongolian. University of California, Santa Barbara PhD dissertation.
- Kämpfe, Hans-Rainer (1974). Die soziale Rolle des 2. Pekinger Lcang skya qutuqtu Rol pa’i rdo rje (1717–1786): Beitrage zu einer Analyse anhand Tibetischer und mongolischer Biographien. Bonn: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität.
- Georg, Stefan (2003). "Mongghul." In Juha Janhunen, editor (2003). The Mongolic Languages. London: Routledge. pp. 286–306.
- Hasibate, editor (1986). Tuzu yu cidian [Tu Language Dictionary]. Mongolian Language Family Dialects Research Series Vol. 14. Huhehaote: Nei menggu renmin chubanshe [Inner Mongolia People's Press].
- Hecken, J. Van (1977). "Schram, Lodewijk, Jozef, Maria, missionaris en etnoloog." Nationaal Biografisch Woordenboek 7:856–865.
- Hu, Alex J.(2010) 'An overview of the history and culture of the Xianbei ('Monguor'/'Tu')', Asian Ethnicity, 11: 1, 95 – 164.
- Hu Jun and Kevin Stuart (1992). "The Guanting Tu (Monguor) Wedding Ceremonies and Songs." Anthropos 87:109 132.
- Hu Jun and Kevin Stuart (1992). "Illness Among the Minhe Tu, Qinghai Province: Prevention and Etiology." Mongolian Studies 15:111 135.
- Illich, Marina (2006). Selections from the Life of a Tibetan Buddhist Polymath: Chankya Rolpai Dorje (Lcang skya rol pa’i rdo rje), 1717–1786. Columbia University PhD dissertation.
- Janhunen, Juha, editor (2003). The Mongolic Languages. London: Routledge.
- Janhunen, Juha (2003). "Shirongol and Shirongolic." Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 8:83–89.
- Janhunen, Juha (2006). "On the Shirongolic Names of Amdo." Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia 11:95–103.
- Janhunen, Juha, Lionel Ha Mingzong and Joseph Tshe.dpag.rnam.rgyal (2007). "On the Language of the Shaowa Tuzu in the Context of the Ethnic Taxonomy of Amdo Qinghai." Central Asiatic Journal.
- Lipman, Jonathan N (1981). The Border World of Gansu, 1895–1935. Stanford University PhD dissertation. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms.
- Li Keyu (1987). Mongghul Qidar Merlong [Mongghul–Chinese Dictionary]. Xining: Qinghai renmin chubanshe [Qinghai People's Press].
- Li Xuewei and Kevin Stuart (1990). "Population and Culture of the Mongols, Tu, Baoan, Dongxiang, and Yugu in Gansu." Mongolian Studies 12:71 93.
- Limusishiden and Kevin Stuart (1994). "‘Caring for All the World’: The Huzhu Monguor (Tu) Pram." In Edward H. Kaplan and Donald W. Whisenhunt, editors. Opuscula Altaica: Essays in Honor of Henry Schwarz. Bellingham: Western Washington University Press. pp. 408–426
- Limusishiden and Kevin Stuart (1995). "Larinbuda and Jiminsu: A Monguor Tragedy." Asian Theatre Journal 12:2, 221–263.
- Limusishiden and Kevin Stuart (1996). "Review of Shilaode [Dominik Schröder] editor, translator, Li Keyu. Tuzu gesaer [Monguor Gesar]." Anthropos 91:297.
- Limusishiden and Kevin Stuart, editors (1998). Huzhu Mongghul Folklore: Texts and Translations. München: Lincon Europa.
- Limusishiden and Kevin Stuart (1999). "Huzhu Mongghul Language Materials." Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja—Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 88:261–264.
- Limsishiden and Kevin Stuart, editors (2001). Huzhu Mongghul Texts: Chileb 1983–1996 Selections. 2 vol. München: Lincom Europa.
- Liu, Xueyao (劉學銚) (1994). Xianbei shi lun 鮮卑史論. Taibei 台北市, Nan tian shu ju 南天書局.
- Lu Jianfu (吕建福) (2002). Tu Zu Shi (土族史, The Tu History). Beijing (北京), Chinese Social Sciences Publishing House (中国社会科学出版社).
- Missions de Scheut (1920). Geschiedenis van de Christenheid Si-ning: 77–82 ; 110–116.
- Ma, Guangxing (1990). "Wedding, Etiquette, and Traditional Songs of the Minhe Region Tu (translated by Jun Hu and Kevin Stuart)." Asian Folklore Studies 49 (2): 197–222.
- Missions de Scheut (1920). Lettres du P. Schram: 38–41.
- Missions de Scheut (1920). Notes sur la prefecture chinoise d Si-ning (Koukounor): 79–85 &112–119.
- Missions de Scheut (1921). De gelukkigste men's in Kansoe: 138.
- Missions de Scheut (1921). L’Immaculee et les paiens de Chine: 201–220.
- Missions de Scheut (1921). De zwarte ellende in Si-ning: 217–223.
- Molè, Gabriella (1970). The Tu-yü-hun from the Northern Wei to the Time of the Five Dynasties. Serie Orientale Roma 41. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estreme Oriente.
- Mostaert, Antoine (1931). "The Mongols of Kansu and their Language." Bulletin of the Catholic University of Peking 8:75–89.
- Mostaert, Antoine (1963–1964). "Over Pater Louis Schram CICM." Haec Olim 15:103–108.
- Ngag dbang chos ldan (Shes rab dar rgyas) and Klaus Sagaster (1967). Subud erike, "ein Rosenkranz aus Perlen": die Biographie des 1. Pekinger lCang skya Khutukhtu, Ngag dbang blo bzang chos ldan. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- Ngag dbang thub bstan dbang phyug and Hans-Rainer Kämpfe (1976). Nyi ma’i ‘od zer/ Naran-u gerel: Die Biographie des 2. Pekingger lCang skya Qutugtu Rol pa’i rdo rje (1717–1786), Monumenta Tibetica Historica, Abteilung II: Vitae, Band 1. St. Augustin: VGH Wissenschaftsverlag.
- Norbu, Kalsang (Skal bzang nor bu), Zhu Yongzhong, and Kevin Stuart (1999). "A Ritual Winter Exorcism in Gnyan Thog Village, Qinghai." Asian Folklore Studies 58:189–203.
- Postiglione, Gerard A., editor (1999). China’s National Minority Education: Ethnicity, Schooling and Development. New York: Garland Press.
- Potanin, G. N (1893). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraïna Kitaya i Central’naya Mongoliya, vols. 1–2. St. Petersburg.
- Potanin, G. N (1950). Tangutsko-Tibetskaya okraina Kitaya i tsentral’naya Mongoliya (The Tangut-Tibetan frontier of China and Central Mongolia). Moscow. State Publisher. (An abridged edition of the 1893 version.)
- Qi Huimin, Limusishiden, and Kevin Stuart (1997–1998). "Huzhu Monguor Wedding Songs: Musical Characteristics." Parts I, II, III, IV. Chinese Music 20:1, 6–12, 14–17; 20:2, 32–37; 20:3, 43–52; 20:4, 68–71; 21:1, 10–13.
- Qi Huimin, Zhu Yongzhong, and Kevin Stuart (1999). "Minhe Mangghuer Wedding Songs: Musical Characteristics." Asian Folklore Studies 58:77–120.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1912). Kansou. Missions en Chine et au Congo 149.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1918). Catholic Missions. Ethnographic Notes 229–231.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1927). "Christelijke Kunst in China." Bulletin Catholique de Peking 668–376.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1932). "Le mariage chez les T’ou-jen du Kan-sou [Marriage Among the Monguor of Gansu]." Variétés Sinologiques 58. [Available in an English translation (1962) by Jean H. Winchell in the Human Relations Area Files AE9].
- Schram, Louis MJ (1954). "The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier: Their Origin, History, and Social Organization." Philadelphia: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 44:1.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1954). "The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier: Part II. Their Religious Life." Philadelphia: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 47:1.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1955). Two letters to Marguerite Hebert. Hebert (Raphael & Family) Papers Mss. 4769, Subseries 8. Louisiana and Lower Mississippi Valley Collections, Special Collections, Hill Memorial Library, Louisiana State University Libraries, Baton Rouge, Louisiana State University.
- Schram, Louis MJ (1961). "The Monguors of the Kansu-Tibetan Frontier: Part III. Records of the Monguor Clans." Philadelphia: Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 51:3.
- Schram, Louis MJ. (Li Meiling, translator; Robert Fried and Heather Fried, proofreaders) (2006). "蒙古尔部族的组织 Mengguer Buzu de Zuzhi [Organization of the Monguor Clan]." 青海民族研究 Qinghai Minzu Yanjiu [Nationalities Research in Qinghai]. 1:29–36; 2:10–14.
- Schröder, Dominik (1952/1953). "Zur Religion der Tujen des Sininggebietes (Kukunor) [On the Religion of the Monguor of the Xining Region (Koknor)]." Anthropos 47:1–79, 620–658, 822–870; 48:202–249. [Available in an English translation (1962) by Richard Neuse IN Human Relations Area Files AE9.]
- Schröder, Dominik (1959). Aus der Volksdicntung der Monguor [From the Popular Poetry of the Monguor]; 1. Teil: Das weibe Glücksschaf (Mythen, Märchen, Lieder) [Part 1. The White Lucky-Sheep (Myths, Fairytales, Songs)]. Asiatische Forschungen 6. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- Schröder, Dominik (1964). Der dialekt der Monguor In B. Spuler, editor Mongolistik. (Handbuch der Orientalistik, 1. Abteilung, 5. Band, 2. Abschnitt). Leiden: EJ Brill.
- Schröder, Dominik (1970). Aus der Volksdichtung der Monguor [From the Popular Poetry of the Monguor]; 2. Teil: In den Tagen der Urzeit (Ein Mythus vom Licht und vom Leben) [Part 2. In the Days of Primeval Times (A Myth of Light and Life)]. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- Slater, Keith W (1998). "Minhe Mangghuer: a Mixed Language of the Inner Asian Frontier". University of California, Santa Barbara.
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- Todaevam Buljash Khojchievna (1961). Dunsyanskii yazyk. Moskva: Institut narodov Aziï AN SSSR.
- Todaevam Buljash Khojchievna (1963). "Einige Besonderheiten der Paoan-Sprache." Acta Orientalia Hungarica 16: 175–197.
- Todaevam Buljash Khojchievna (1966). Baoan’skii yazyk. Moskva: Institut narodov Aziï AN SSSR.
- Todaevam Buljash Khojchievna (1973). Mongorskii yazyk: Issledovanie, teksty, slovar (The Monguor Language: Analysis, Texts, and Glossary). Moskva: Institut vostokovedeniya AN SSSR.
- Üjiyediin Chuluu (Wu Chaolu) (1994). "Introduction, Grammar, and Sample Sentences for Monguor." Sino-Platonic Papers No 57.
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- Wang Xianzheng, Zhu Yongzhong, and Kevin Stuart (1995). "‘The Brightness of the World’: Minhe Monguor Women Sing." Mongolian Studies 18:65–83.
- Wang Xianzhen, writer; Zhu Yongzhong and Kevin Stuart, editors (2001). Mangghuerla Bihuang Keli [Mangghuer Folktale Reader]. Chengdu, China-Chengdu Audio Press.
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