Tudeh Party of Iran

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Tudeh" redirects here. For places in Iran, see Tudeh, Iran.

Tudeh Party of Iran
Newspaper
Anti-revisionism[2]
Political positionFar-left[4]
National affiliationUFPP (1946–1948)[5]
International affiliationIMCWP
Historic:
Comintern
AnthemAnthem for Tudeh
(composed by Parviz Mahmoud)[6]
Website
www.tudehpartyiran.org Edit this at Wikidata

The Tudeh Party of Iran (Persian: حزب توده ایران, romanized: Hezb-e Tude-ye Irân, lit. 'Party of the Masses of Iran') is an Iranian communist party. Formed in 1941, with Soleiman Mirza Eskandari as its head, it had considerable influence in its early years and played an important role during Mohammad Mosaddegh's campaign to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and his term as prime minister.[7] Tudeh became a pro-Soviet organization after the Iran crisis of 1946 and was prepared to carry out the dictates of the Kremlin, even if it meant sacrificing Iranian political independence and sovereignty.[8][9] The crackdown that followed the 1953 coup against Mosaddegh is said to have "destroyed" the party,[10][11] although a remnant persisted. The party still exists but has remained much weaker as a result of its banning in Iran and mass arrests by the Islamic Republic in 1982, as well as the executions of political prisoners in 1988. Tudeh identified itself as the historical offshoot of the Communist Party of Persia.[12]

Ideological profile

The party has generally been described as "communist" by historians (for example: "The Tudeh Party was a classical pro-Soviet Union communist party, but wrapped itself at the time in nationalism to be more attractive to Iranians"[3]), but is sometimes described simply as "leftist" or even "left-leaning" by more sympathetic sources.[13] Various academic sources have described the party as "Stalinist".[2]

History

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Related topics

Birth of the communist movement in Iran

The history of the

social democrat
political activity, and many such groups came into being over the years.

The

Constitutional Revolution of Iran, became the national secretary of the new party. At the same time, Mirza Kuchik Khan, another major leader of the Constitutional Revolution and also the leader of the revolutionary Jungle "Jangali" Movement (Foresters' Movement), established the Socialist Soviet Republic of Gilan with the assistance of the Red Army of the Soviet Union.[14][15][16]

With the defeat of both the newly formed Soviet Republic of Gilan and the Communist Party, communist and social democrat activity once again went underground. In the early 1920s the Qajar dynasty finally collapsed, and Reza Shah ascended to the throne in 1925, establishing the Pahlavi dynasty. The new Shah introduced many reforms, such as limiting the power of the Shia clergy, but also in turn established an authoritarian dictatorship.

In 1929–30, the party organized strikes in an

Qasr Prison in Tehran. Along with the Stalin purges, which took a heavy toll on Iranian communist exiles living in the Soviet Union, these arrests meant the Communist Party of Iran "ceased to exist for all practical purposes outside the walls of Qasr."[17]

Foundation of the Tudeh Party

The British-Soviet

Marxist–Leninist party appealing to the broad masses.[19] They founded the Tudeh party on 29 September 1941, electing Soleiman Eskandari as party president.[20]

Initially the party was intended to be "a

Moharram processions, and designating "a special prayer room in its main clubhouse." This orientation did not last and the party moved "rapidly to the left" within months of its founding.[21]

Early peak

See also: Coalition government of Ahmad Qavam

In 1944, the party entered the 14th

Tudeh Party Military Organization of Iran, or TPMO (Sazman-e Nezami-ye Hezb-e Tudeh-ye Iran) made up of officers in the military. The TPMO provided the party with intelligence and information from the military to protect it from the security forces and give it military strength, though historians believe the party had no plan at that time to use the TPMO to stage a coup.[22]

At the same time, Tudeh took a strong stand in favor of women's rights, starting in 1943. This included advocating for equal pay for equal work, two months of maternity leave for female workers and otherwise standing for women's social rights, working with those who had been fighting for these goals for years and were

socialist.[23]
Even so, issues of
sexuality
, and other elements within family life were not discussed.

From this point on the party grew immensely and became a major force in Iranian politics. By early 1945, the party had managed to create the first mass organization in Iran's history. Police records later revealed it had an estimated 2,200 hard-core members – 700 of them in

New York Times reckoned it and its allies could win as much as 40% of the vote in a fair election.[25]

This period has been called the height of the party's intellectual influence which came in large part from the prestige and propaganda of the

socialist splinter group –Third Force– in protest against the Tudeh's "nakedly pro-Soviet" policies.[26]

Tarnishing the appeal of the Tudeh in the next two years 1944–46 were Soviet demands for a

Majles had previously vigorously demanded the nationalization of the whole petroleum industry, the Tudeh party supported granting the Soviet petroleum industry in Iran its wishes on grounds of "socialist solidarity", "internationalism," and "anti-imperialism."[27]

Tudeh became a pro-Soviet organization after the Iran crisis of 1946 and was prepared to carry out the dictates of the Kremlin, even if it meant sacrificing Iranian political independence and sovereignty.[8][9] Based on increasingly available archival material from Russia, Iranologist Soli Shahvar contends that this was true much earlier—dating back to the Tudeh Party's inception, not just during the Fourteenth Majlis election campaign.[8]

International Cold War context

During this time the rest of the international communist movement was also thriving. The communist world expanded dramatically in the decade following

Shia religious figures. Its agents provoked "violent acts" and blamed them on the communists, and hired "thugs to break up Tudeh rallies."[31] Nonetheless, the party was able to fill the streets of Tehran and Abadan "with tens of thousands of enthusiastic demonstrators" for May Day in 1946.[32]

1949 crackdown

In February 1949, there was an attempt on the life of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. The party was blamed by the government and banned. The government "confiscated its assets, dissolved affiliated organizations, especially the Central Council and rounded up some 200 leaders and cadres."[33]

The party continued to function underground however and by 1950 it had organized its supporters under the banner of the Iran Society for Peace (Jam'iyat-e Irani-ye Havadar-e Solh) and was publishing three daily papers, Razm, Mardom, and Besui-ye Ayandeh.[22] In December 1950, the TPMO, its military organization, managed "to arrange for the escape of key members of the party leadership who had been in jail since early 1949."[22]

Such suppression was assisted by conservatives detesting the Tudeh Party, which was later outlawed and allied with Mossadegh.[34] One Iranian conservative newspaper even editorialized:

"...the Tudeh Party, with its satanic doctrine of class struggles, has incited ignorant workers to violate the sacred right of private property and inflict social anarchy upon the center of the country. This uprising proves that Tudeh is an enemy of private property, of Iran, and of Islam. If the government does not stamp out Tudeh, the local revolt will inevitably spread into a general revolution."

Mosaddegh era, his overthrow and aftermath

The party played an important role both directly and indirectly during the pivotal era of Iranian history that began with the 1951

CIA-led coup d'état. The party's policy "fluctuated", first attacking Mosaddeq as 'an agent of American imperialism', then giving him some support during and after the July 1952 uprising. On 15 August a coup attempt against Mosaddeq was thwarted thanks in part to information uncovered by the Tudeh TPMO military network, but two days later party militants inadvertently helped destabilized the government by staging demonstrations to pressure Mosaddeq to declare Iran a democratic republic. As this would have overturned Iran's constitutional monarchy, Mosaddeq reacted by calling out troops to suppress the demonstrators. The party then demobilized late the next day making it unavailable to fight the coup the day after.[35] By 1957 the TPMO was crushed and thousands of party members had been arrested.[citation needed
]

Oil nationalization

Senior members of Tudeh in 1955 (left to right): Rousta, Keshavarz, Radmanesh, Eskandari and Kambakhsh

Following World War II, Iranian public support was growing for the nationalization of the British Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC)[36] whose profits had greatly exceeded its royalty payments to the Iranian government.

In 1951,

National Front of Iran, led parliament in the nationalization of AIOC, and shortly after was appointed prime minister by the Shah. Mosaddegh oversaw the takeover of British oil facilities and rising economic difficulty and polarization in Iran as the AIOC withdrew its employees and retaliated with a boycott of Iranian oil.[37]

In early April 1951, the Tudeh revealed its "true strength" by launching strikes and riots protesting low wages and poor housing and delays in the nationalization of the oil industry.[34] There were "street demonstrations and sympathy strikes in Tehran, Isfahan, and the northern cities." Police opened fire on demonstrators. A result was "panic" in Iran's parliament at the power of Marxist forces in Iran.[38] With this, it became apparent that Mossaddegh was not a communist and that the Tudeh did not control the government, nor did the party want to overthrow him even as it was establishing a broad public base.[citation needed]

During this period the Tudeh followed a "leftist" rather than "

poor countries was central to Marxist–Leninist
doctrine, the party vigorously and relentlessly opposed Mosaddegh and his program. In a June 1950 article in its daily Mardom it described the effects of Mosaddegh's policy thusly:

Already we can be sure that revisions in the southern oil contract will not be in favor of our people and will only result in the consolidation of England's position in our country. ... The solution to the oil question is related to the victory of our party, that is, the people of Iran.[41]

On 16 July 1952, Mosaddegh resigned after the shah refused to accept his nomination for War Minister. Mosaddegh appealed to the general public for support, but Tudeh press continued to attack him, describing his differences with the shah "as merely one between different factions of a reactionary ruling elite."[42] It was only after the explosion of popular support for Mosaddegh in the street that "many rank-and-file" Tudeh party members "could see first hand Mosaddegh's popularity",[42] and came to his aid.

According to one observer:

although diverse elements participated in the July uprising, the impartial observer must confess that the Tudeh played an important part—perhaps even the most important part. ... If in the rallies before March 1952 one-third of the demonstrators had been Tudeh and two-thirds had been National Front, after March 1952, the proportions were reversed.[43]

Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani, who later switched sides and supported the Shah, "sent a public letter to the pro-Tudeh organizations thanking them for their invaluable contribution" during the uprising toward Mosaddegh's victory.[44]

Mosaddeq capitalized on the uprising to establish an emergency rule, which allowed him to bypass the Majles, and also to institute socialist reforms.[45] With the Soviets not wanting to back or "shore up" Tudeh, and Truman refusing demands to overthrow Mosadegh from Clement Attlee and Winston Churchill, it would take the inauguration of Dwight Eisenhower to change the tune, greenlighting the coup operation.[citation needed]

1953 coup

During this time the US government became more and more frustrated with Mosaddeq and the stalemate over negotiations with the UK government on control and compensation, with the American ambassador even questioning Mosaddeq's "mental stability".

uprising of strikes and protests in East Germany in June 1953.[47][48]

As Americans gave up hope on Mosaddeq, their propaganda and covert action campaign against the Tudeh, called TPBEDAMN, expanded to include him.

coup in Czechoslovakia in 1948, replacing a democratic regime and constitution with a pro-Soviet, one-party Communist government.[50]

The Tudeh also sensed a coup might be coming, and created "vanguard cells" that along with the TPMO, "identified key military installation, army depots, and command and control centers in the capital" Tehran "to react violently to any coup attempt."[51] Recently released photographs by William Arthur Cram show that Tudeh organized huge demonstrations in August before the coup occurred.[52]

The plotters' first attempt involved persuading the shah to issue an edict dismissing Mosaddegh and replacing him with retired General Fazlollah Zahedi, while arresting Mosaddegh and taking over other possible centers of opposition. On 15 August the plot was uncovered by Tudeh supporters in the military, and a contingent sent to arrest Mosaddegh was intercepted and arrested themselves. Colonel Mohammad Ali Mobasherri, was a member of the TPMO's (secret) three-man secretariat, but also an active member of Tehran Military Governor, the center of the coup operation. Major Hehdi Homaouni served in the shah's Imperial Guard and discovered and reported the August plot to the party.[53] In a recent set of documents released by the National Security Archive, which noted pro-Shah demonstrators sacked pro-Tudeh and pro-Mossadegh establishments, it was noted that British and American intelligence agents infiltrated Tudeh so it could blunt Mossadegh. These documents also noted that Eisenhower and Truman differed in their assessments of Mossadegh, with Eisenhower feeling he could not as effectively counter Tudeh as Truman and the CIA in August 1953 downplaying "the likelihood of a Tudeh overthrow attempt" but fears the Tudeh taking power in a more long-term fashion.[54]

The coup attempt created a backlash against its perpetrators, including the shah. The already anti-monarchical Tudeh supporters were radicalized and on the morning of 17 August "an angry crowd began to attack symbols of the monarchy" and demanded its abolition. Mosaddegh, who was aware of Western fears of the Tudeh and who had worked to limit the power of the shah but had "never suggested he was in favor of abolishing the constitutional monarchy," saw these attacks as a challenge, as removing the shah would violate the constitution.[55] The next day his regime ordered the military into the streets, and "up to 600 mid and low-level Tudeh activists were arrested in Tehran alone."[56] With its network "severely damaging" the party reversed course once again, and "ordered a demobilization" of its preparations to fight a coup.[57]

Taking advantage of the quiet, the CIA and its Iranian allies struck again, and on 19 August the coup d'état replaced Mosaddegh with Zahedi. The coup was a major event in Third World and 20th Century history and there is debate as to how much of the blame for the overthrow can be traced to bribes paid by the CIA and how much to domestic dissatisfaction with Mossadegh.[58][59][60] Whatever the motivations, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi thereafter assumed dictatorial powers and banned most political groups, including Mosaddegh's National Front, which along with the Tudeh Party, continued to function underground.

Crackdown following coup

The mass arrests, destruction of its organization and execution of some 40–50 leaders following the coup has been said to have "destroyed" the Tudeh.[10] Between 1953 and 1957, Iranian security forces using "brute force, together with the breaking of the cryptographic code – probably with CIA know-how – … tracked down 4,121 party members." This constituted the whole Tudeh underground and "more than half the party membership". Tudeh infiltration of the military by the TPMO[61] totaled 477 members in the armed forces, "22 colonels, 69 majors, 100 captains, 193 lieutenants, 19 noncommissioned officers, and 63 military cadets." Ervand Abrahamian notes that none of these was in the "crucial tank divisions around Tehran" that could have been used for a coup d'état and which the Shah had screened carefully. "Ironically, a Tudeh colonel had been in charge of the Shah's personal security – as well as that of Vice President Richard Nixon when he visited Iran. The Tudeh had the opportunity to assassinate the Shah and the U.S. vice president but not to launch a coup."[62] Maziar Behrooz is more optimistic about the party's chances of stopping the coup, saying that while "most of the Tudeh officers were in non-combat posts," they "were in a position to access and distribute weapons. In their memoirs, TPMO high- and middle-ranking members have confirmed their ability to distribute weapons and even assassinate key Iranian leaders of the coup. Hence, with a disciplined party membership, backed by military officers with access to weapons, the Tudeh had a strong hand."[63]

With the TPMO decimated, the Tudeh network was compromised as the TPMO had "acted as a shield for the party" and helped preserve it immediately after Mosaddeq's overthrow. "Many high- and middle-ranking Tudeh leaders were arrested or forced to flee the country. The arrest and execution of Khosro Roozbeh in 1957-8 signaled the end of this process."[64]

Tudeh verdict

After the fact, the party engaged in self-criticism of its policies toward Mosaddeq at its Fourth Plenum held in Moscow in July 1957. They found them "sectarian and leftist" and did not to recognizing "the progressive nature" of the oil nationalization movement.[clarification needed][65]

Late 1950s and 1960s

The

U.S. State Department estimated the party membership to be approximately 1500.[67]

In 1965, the party faced a second division between the mainstream of the organization and the splinter faction, which advocated a violent struggle against the government by arming the tribes of

Labour Party of Iran
.

In 1966, several party members, including Ali Khavari and Parviz Hekmatjoo of the Central Committee, and Asef Razmdideh and Saber Mohammadzadeh, were arrested and sentenced to death. This sparked an international outcry and hunger strikes in Europe which forced the government to reduce the sentences to life imprisonment. These events created much international sympathy for the worker's struggle in Iran and helped unify the party after the split. The Tudeh Party from this point on becomes established as one of the strongest underground movements and helps to pave the way for the forthcoming Iranian Revolution of 1979.

Iranian Revolution of 1979

In the early 1970s, the Iranian

Islamic Revolution when others on the left opposed it.[citation needed
]

Islamic Republic

During the revolution, many political prisoners were freed and the Tudeh Party and other leftist groups were able to participate in the presidential and parliamentary elections for the first time in many years. However, the majority of seats in the Majlis were won by the

Ayatollah Khomeini, also became increasingly frustrated with the developments that had been taking place and opposed the domination of the clergy and the religious factions in Iranian politics. In addition, the party denounced Amnesty International's call to end the summary executions and called it "blatant interference in Iranian affairs".[69]

In 1981, the Majlis, dominated by the Islamic Republican Party, forced Banisadr out of office, which initiated a wave of protests and demonstrations from all segments of the populace. Banisadr later fled the country. Armed revolutionary committees loyal to Khomeini (which came to be known as the Pasdaran) arrested many thousands of youth and activists from both nationalist and leftist groups, many of whom were later tried by Lajevardi, known as the Hanging Judge, and executed.

At this point in the history of the Tudeh Party, the

Azeris within the population were prominent.[70]

Suppression

While other leftist parties opposed the Islamist forces at this time and were suppressed as a result, Tudeh Party leadership as well as the Fadaian Aksariat decided to support the new clerical theocratic regime. This may have been to try to follow the pro-Tehran line of the Soviet Union.[citation needed]

In 1982, however, the Tudeh broke ranks. The Islamist government of Iran had closed down the Tudeh newspaper and purged Tudeh members from government ministries. According to the

CIA. Their information was then shared with the Iranian government by the CIA, which was secretly courting Iran, as part of the Iran–Contra affair.[71]

Quite quickly the government arrested and imprisoned its leadership and later more than 10,000 members of the party. In February 1983, the leaders of the Tudeh Party were arrested and the Party disbanded, leaving Iran effectively a one-party state.[72] The Tudeh arrests revealed that once again the party had managed to find supporters among the armed forces, as a number of officers, prominent among them Admiral Bahram Afzali, commander of the Iranian navy, were arrested.[73] These arrests ended the alliance between the Tudeh Party and the ruling clergy of Iran and it collapsed, even as the Soviets worked with the Iranians to build up their nuclear capabilities.[citation needed] Even with this agreement, the Iranian government saw the Soviets as "atheistic devils" and the Soviets did not like the government because it had suppressed the Tudeh.[citation needed]

International media, such as UPI, reported that along with the banning of the Tudeh party, 18 Soviet diplomats were expelled from the country for "blatant interference."[74] At the same time, Tudeh was accused of working on behalf of "foreign powers," with the suppression praised by Khomeini.

From 1 May 1983 to 1 May 1984 almost all of the Tudeh leadership appeared in videos, first individually and then jointly in an October 1983 "roundtable discussion," confessing to "treason", "subversion", "horrendous crimes", praising Islam and proclaiming Islamic government's superiority over atheistic Marxism–Leninism.[75] British officials supported Iran's crackdown and joked about the state torture techniques used to extract the confessions. British officials were pleased by the repression not primarily because they were concerned about Soviet influence in the country since they knew that Iran was quite independent of that, but because they wanted to curry favor with the Iranian regime.[76]

In 1 May 1984 Ehsan Tabari, appeared on television. A man with "50 years of leftist experiences" told viewers he had read "great Islamic thinkers" such as Ayatollah Motahhari in prison following the 1982 crackdown and had now come

to repudiate the works he had written over the past 40 years. He now realized that his entire life's work was 'defective', 'damaging', and 'totally spurious' because it had all been based on unreliable thinkers –

Marxists linked to 'imperialism' and 'Zionism' …[77]

In his recantation, Tabari made frequent references to religion, the Twelve Imams and Islamic thinkers and "praised Islam for its `great spiritual strength.`"[78]

The suspicions of outside observers that the confession was not given freely were reinforced by the absence of Taqi Keymanash and "13 other members" of the Tudeh central committee, who died during prison interrogation.

MI-6 were used. The simplest explanation came several years after the television recantations, from a prison visit by a United Nations' human rights representative (Galindo Pohl) to Iran. The Tudeh Party General Secretary Noureddin Kianouri was reported to have told the representative that he and his wife had been tortured to give false confessions. As evidence, he held up his badly set broken arm. Pohl added that Maryam Firuz had difficulty hearing, swallowing food, and sitting down because of beatings suffered eight years earlier at the hands of the Shah's secret police.[73][80] Kianouri later wrote an open letter to the Ayatollah detailing his mistreatment.[81]

As a result of these purges, a great number of party members left the country into exile. As the party represented the "Soviet view of a preferred leftist movement" that holds a pro-Soviet ideological line and responds to Soviet foreign policy in a supportive manner, the

Mojahedin and leftist prisoners were killed.[83] One report lists 90 Tudeh killed in just some blocks of Evin and Gohar Dasht prisons
.

Electoral history

See also: Tudeh fraction
Year Election Seats won
1943
Parliament
1947 Parliament
Banned in 1949 election
1952 Parliament
Did not contest between 1953 and 1978 due to being banned
1979
Constitutional Assembly
1980 Parliament
Banned since 1983

Estimated membership

Year Members Ref
1942 2,087 (towards September) [84]
6,000 [85]: 284 
1944 25,800 [85]: 293 
1945 69,000 [86]
1946 50,000 core members + 100,000 affiliates [87]
80,000 [88]
1947 50,000–200,000 [89]
275,000 including affiliated labor unions' membership [89]
1949 25,000 [86][90]
1952 20,000 [85]: 320 
50,000 including sympathizers and affiliated membership [91]
1953 15,000–20,000 [92]
25,000 + 300,000 sympathizers [85]: 321 
1965 3,000 [93]
1967 ≤ 1,000 [94]
1977 5,000 [85]: 457 
1979 1,500 + 400 exiled in East Germany [95]
7,000 armed in Tehran [96]
1980 5,000 [95]
1983 ≤ 5,000 [97]

Current status

Despite the repression, the party has managed to survive. Though since the

political prisoners in Iran.[citation needed
]

Today, the party leadership is mainly based in exile, as is the new Central Committee, elected in 1992. The party has taken positions against

Trump Administration's airstrike which killed Qasem Soleimani, while simultaneously criticizing the Iranian government for intervening in both Iraq and Lebanon.[108]

Leadership

# Name Tenure Title Ref
From To
1 Soleiman Eskandari 1941 1944 Chairman [109]
2 Iraj Eskandari 1944 1948 General-Secretaries
(Shared) 		[110]
Mohammad Bahrami
Noureddin Alamouti
3 Reza Radmanesh 1948 1969 First-Secretary [111]
– Mohammad Bahrami 1949 1953 Acting First-Secretary [112]
4 Iraj Eskandari 1969 1979 First-Secretary [113]
5 Noureddin Kianouri 1979 1984 First-Secretary [113]
– Ali Khavari 1983 1984 Acting First-Secretary [114]
6 1984 2004 First-Secretary [115]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c "Tudeh: 75 Years Fighting For Iran's Working Class". Morning Star. 8 October 2016. Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  2. ^ a b c Multiple sources:
  3. ^ a b The Nationalist-Religious Movement | Part 1: Patriots and Mosaddeghists by MUHAMMAD SAHIMI Tehran Bureau in Los Angeles| 28 June 2011
  4. ^ Touraj Atabaki (2000), Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran, I.B.Tauris, p. 137
  5. ISBN 0-691-10134-5
    .
  6. ISBN 978-1-317-62062-4
    .
  7. ^ Tudeh News, Statement of the Central Committee of the Tudeh Party of Iran, 2007.
  8. ^
    doi:10.1017/irn.2023.56
    .
  9. ^ a b Abdul Razak, Rowena (2018). "Convenient comrades: reassessing the early relationship between the Soviet Union and the Tudeh Party during the British–Soviet occupation of Iran, 1941–1945". In Matthee, Rudi; Andreeva, Elena (eds.). Russians in Iran: Diplomacy and power in the Qajar era and beyond. I.B. Tauris. p. 276.
  10. ^ a b Abrahamian, Ervand, A History of Modern Iran, p.122
  11. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), p.92
  12. ISBN 978-0-8156-5147-5
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  13. ^ US Foreign Policy in Perspective: Clients, enemies and empire by David Sylvan and Stephen Majeski, Routledge, 2009, p.85
  14. ^ H. RamHormozi, Averting An Iranian Geopolitical Crisis: A Tale of Power Play for Dominance Between Colonial Powers, Tribal and Government Actors in the Pre and Post World War One Era (Victoria, BC, Canada: Friesen Press, 2016), 274.
  15. ^ Arutiun Airapetian and Marcelo Gryckiewicz, Transcaucasian Banknotes (BoD – Books on Demand, 2009), 190.
  16. ^ The British, who were a dominant influence in the Qajar court of Tehran, reportedly sent agents to infiltrate the Foresters Movement in a carefully prepared plot.
  17. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, Tortured Confessions: Prisons and Public Recantations in Modern Iran by Ervand Abrahamian, (University of California Press, 1999) p. 28–29
  18. ^
    doi:10.1017/irn.2023.56
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  19. ^ Abrahamian, History of Modern Iran (2008) p. 107
  20. ^ Tudeh Party, DOCUMENT CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE TUDEH PARTY OF IRAN ON THE OCCASION OF 75TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE TUDEH PARTY OF IRAN, 2016
  21. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions (1999), pp. 77–78
  22. ^ a b c Behrooz writing in Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p.103
  23. ^ Women and Islam: Women's movements in Muslim societies, ed. Haideh Moghissi, p. 92-94.
  24. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999) p. 81
  25. ^ Ettela'at, 24 September 1979, quoted in Abrahamian, History of Modern Iran (2008) pp. 108–09
  26. ^ Mottahedeh, Roy, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran, One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p. 290
  27. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions (1999) p. 82
  28. ^ Byrne, p. 213
  29. ^ Byrne, p. 214
  30. ^ Gasiorowski writing in Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p. 243
  31. ^ Byrne writing in Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p.217
  32. ^ Kinzer, All the Shah's Men, 2003, p. 65
  33. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999) p.84
  34. ^ a b Michele Penner Angris, Party Building in the Modern Middle East (US: University of Washington Press, 2011), 131.
  35. ^ Behrooz writing in Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p.121
  36. ^ Saikal, Amin, The Rise and Fall of the Shah, (Princeton University Press, 1980), p.42. Note: AIOC later became BP
  37. ^ Saikal, The Rise and Fall of the Shah, (1980), p.43-4
  38. ^ "Abrahamian, 1982, p.266"
  39. ^ Azimi writing in Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p.72
  40. ^ Hussein Fateh, "the anticommunist leader of the defunct Comrade's party": Panjah Saleh-e Naft-i Iran Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions (1982), p.320
  41. ^ Behrooz writing in Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p.108
  42. ^ a b Behrooz, p.109
  43. ^ Comment of Hussein Fateh, "the anticommunist leader of the defunct Comrade's party": Panjah Saleh-e Naft-i Iran Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions (1982), p.320
  44. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions (1982), p.320
  45. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions by Ervand Abrahamian, (Princeton University Press, 1982), p.323
  46. ^ Byrne, writing in Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, p. 222
  47. ^ "Books And Arts: How to change a regime in 30 days; Iran", The Economist. London: 16 August 2003. Vol. 368, Iss. 8337; pg. 74
  48. ^ Kinzer, Stephen, All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror, John Wiley and Sons, 2003, p. 84
  49. ^ Mark J. Gasiorowski,The CIA's TPBEDAMN: Operation and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Journal of Cold War Studies, Vol. 15: Issue. 4: Pages. 4-24. Issue publication date: October 2013.
  50. ^ Gasiorowski writing in Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Edited by Mark j. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, Syracuse University Press, 2004, pp. 230–31
  51. ^ Behrooz, p. 116
  52. ^ Saeed Kamali Dehghan, Unseen images of 1953 Iran Coup - in pictures, The Guardian, 16 December 2015.
  53. ^ Behrooz, p. 117
  54. ^ Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran, ed. by Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne, National Security Archive, 2004.
  55. ^ Behrooz, p. 119, 120
  56. ^ Behrooz, p. 120
  57. ^ Behrooz, p. 121
  58. ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton, (2005), p. 124
  59. ^ Mackay, Sandra, The Iranians, Plume (1997), pp. 203–04
  60. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions by Ervand Abrahamian, Princeton University Press, 1982, pp. 276–77
  61. ISBN 978-3-8442-7813-2. [1]
  62. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), p. 92
  63. ^ Behrooz, p. 106
  64. ^ Behrooz, p. 124
  65. ^ Behrooz, p. 123
  66. ^ *"In the early 1960s, moreover the Tudeh was further weakened by defections. With the eruption of the Sino-Soviet dispute, three Tudeh leaders left the party and formed a party called the Organization of Marxist-Leninists. At the same time, some members of the party's youth section left and formed the Revolutionary Organization of the Tudeh Party." Iran in Revolution: The Opposition Forces, Ervand Abrahamian
  67. ^ Benjamin, Roger W.; Kautsky, John H.. Communism and Economic Development, in The American Political Science Review, Vol. 62, No. 1. (Mar. 1968), pp. 122.
  68. ^ Brochure of the Iranian Tudeh Party, "Oil from Iran and imperialist oil monopolies," Safari, Hamid: Impiryalism-i naftkhar. Strassfurt, Tudeh Publishing Centre [1973]. Call number: Bro 5647/4.
  69. JSTOR 4283563
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  70. ^ Michele Penner Angris, Party Building in the Modern Middle East (US: University of Washington Press, 2011), 71.
  71. ISBN 978-0-553-26968-0. In 1983, the U.S. helped bring to the attention of Tehran the threat inherent in the extensive infiltration of the government by the communist Tudeh Party and Soviet or pro-Soviet cadres in the country. Using this information, the Khomeini government took measures, including mass executions, that virtually eliminated the pro-Soviet infrastructure in Iran. Available online here.
  72. ^ Momen, Moojan, An Introduction to Shi'i Islam, Yale University Press, 1985, p. 297
  73. ^ a b Maziar Behrooz, Rebels with a Cause, (2000), p. 129
  74. UPI
    , 4 May 1983.
  75. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), p. 177
  76. ^ The Daily Maverick, 21 January 2020, "How Britain Helped Iran's Islamic Regime Destroy the Left-Wing Opposition"
  77. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), p. 204
  78. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), pp. 204–05
  79. ^ United Nations (Economic and Social Council) Situation of Human Rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran (New York, November 1990), p.53. quoted in Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), p.191
  80. ^ Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, (1999), p.223
  81. ^ Haleh Afshar, "Maryam Firouz", Obituary, The Guardian, 31 March 2008
  82. ^ Foundation for Constitutional Government in Iran, "Soviet presence in Iran: the case of the Tudeh Party" (1985), p. 2, 3, 7.
  83. ^ 1984: Ten Members of the Tudeh Party, ExecutedToday.com, 25 February 2017.
  84. doi:10.4000/monderusse.22
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  86. ^
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  87. ISBN 978-1-137-37900-9
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  89. ^ a b Amanda N. Jarvis (2015). Leftists as a Political Opposition in Iran (PDF) (BA thesis). University of Utah.
  90. ISBN 978-0-8135-1412-3
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  91. ^ Sepehr Zabih (1966). The Communist Movement in Iran. University of California Press. p. 176.
  92. ISBN 978-0-415-61058-2
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  93. ISBN 978-1-135-04381-0
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  94. ^ World Strength of the Communist Party Organizations, Issues 19-21, United States. Dept. of State. Intelligence report 4489 R-, United States. Department of State. Office of Intelligence Research and Analysis, United States. Department of State. Bureau of Intelligence and Research, 1967, p. 111
  95. ^ a b "Iran: Recent Tudeh Party Activity" (PDF), Central Intelligence Agency (Intelligence Memorandum), 1 April 1980, CIA-RDP81B00401R000500110043-1, archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017
  96. ISBN 978-1-62616-065-1
  97. ^ United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs, Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service (1985). The Soviet Union in the third world, 1980-85: an imperial burden on political asset?. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 151.
  98. ^ Tudeh Party, PRIVATIZATION STILL MADE DISASTER! INCREASE THE IMPACT OF DEREGULATION AND PRIVATIZATION WORK, THE BRINGING JOBS TO WORKERS, 2017.
  99. ^ Tudeh Party, TRUE FREEDOM, IN THE FACE OF ELECTORAL SHOWING GUARDIANSHIP GOVERNMENT CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE!, 2017.
  100. ^ Tudeh Party, Anti-worker bill proposed in Iran, 2017.
  101. ^ Tudeh Party, Anti-labor forces unite in Iran, 2017.
  102. ^ Tudeh Party, FRENCH PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION: THE BRILLIANT SUCCESS OF THE COMMUNIST PARTY CAMPAIGN, 2017.
  103. ^ Tudeh Party, THE CENTENARY OF THE OCTOBER SOCIALIST REVOLUTION 2017 - 1917: "ONE STEP FORWARD, TWO STEPS BACK", 2017.
  104. ^ Tudeh Party, Solidarity with the Venezuelan Communist Party, 2017.
  105. ^ Tudeh Party, "RECONCILIATION" WITH "REPENT" POSSIBLE! POLITICAL BANKRUPTCY AND COWARDICE "REFORMERS" DEFENDERS OF VELAYAT-E FAQIH REGIME, 2017.
  106. ^ Tudeh Party, Domestic reactions to attack America, 2017.
  107. ^ Tudeh Party, Party Hymns, 2017.
  108. ^ "The urgent need to intensify efforts to preserve peace in the region and confront the adventurous and dangerous policies of US imperialism!". Tudeh Party of Iran. Central Committee of the Tudeh Party of Iran. 4 January 2020. Retrieved 6 January 2020.
  109. ISBN 0-691-10134-5
    .
  110. ISBN 0-691-10134-5
    .
  111. ISBN 0-691-10134-5
    .
  112. ISBN 1-86064-630-1
    .
  113. ^ a b Chaqueri, Cosroe (15 December 1998) [19 January 2012]. "ESKANDARĪ, ĪRAJ". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Fasc. 6. Vol. VIII. New York City: Bibliotheca Persica Press. pp. 604–606. Retrieved 12 September 2017.
  114. ISBN 978-1-136-81263-7
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  115. ISBN 978-1-135-04381-0
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External links
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