Turk Shahis

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Turk Shahis
665–822 CE[1][2]
Udabhanda (winter capital)
Common languagesBactrian
Religion
Buddhism, Ancient Iranian religion,Hinduism
Historical eraEarly Middle Ages
• Established
665
• Disestablished
822 CE[1][2]
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Hephthalites
Alchon Huns
Nezak Huns
Tokhara Yabghus
Zunbils
Hindu Shahi
Saffarid dynasty
Today part ofAfghanistan
Pakistan

The Turk Shahis or Kabul Shahis were a dynasty of

Kapisa to Gandhara in the 7th to 9th centuries AD.[1][4][5]
They may have been of
Yabghus of Tokharistan.[4] In the Hindu-Kush region, they replaced the Nezak Huns – the last dynasty of Bactrian rulers with origins among the Xwn (Xionite) and/or Huna peoples (who are sometimes also referred to as "Huns" who invaded Eastern Europe during a similar period).[4]

The Turk Shahis arose at a time when the

Saffarids in the 9th century AD.[11] The Ghaznavids then finally broke through into India after overpowering the declining Hindu Shahis and Gurjaras.[1][4]

Kabulistan was the heartland of the Turk Shahi domain, which at times included Zabulistan and Gandhara.[12]

Territorial extents

The Turks under the

Hui Chao
, visiting the area in 723–729 AD, mentioned that these regions were ruled by Turk kings.

History

Establishment: Arab offensive and displacement of the Nezaks

The last extant

Kapisi/ Kabulistan) by the Tang dynasty in 653 AD.[17] He was also likely to be the unnamed ruler who was confirmed as Governor of Jibin under the newly formed Chinese Anxi Protectorate in 661 CE and would broker a peace-treaty with the Arabs, the same year.[18][19] Nonetheless, in 664-665 CE, Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura launched an expedition to reconquer the territories lost during the Caliphate Wars.[a] Kabul was occupied in 665 CE after a siege of a few months but soon revolted, only to be reoccupied after another year-long siege.[b] These events mortally weakened the Nezaks though their ruler — not named in sources — was spared upon converting to Islam.[23]

Sometime soon (666/667?), the Nezaks were replaced by the Turk Shahis, first in Zabulistan and then in Kabulistan and Gandhara.

Shahi ruler of Kapisi — named Barha Tegin by Al-Biruni — was an usurper, who used to be a military commander in the service of the last Nezak King.[26][27][d] Al-Biruni provides a rather legendary account of Barhategin's rise, extrapolating from multiple mythological motifs,[e] and the precise circumstances surrounding the dawning of the Turk Shahis remain unclear.[f]

Tang Protectorate and vassalage to the Tokhara Yabghus

The Bala Hissar fortress, west Kabul, originally built around the 5th century AD

The Turk Shahis, like the rest of the

Anxi Protectorate: the city of Yege (modern Mihtarlam) east of Kabul was considered as the seat of a Chinese Commandery for the Jibin country, and named the Xiuxian Commandery (修鮮都督府, Xiūxiān Dūdùfû),[18] the city of Yan at the border with Gandhara was the seat of the Yuepan Commandery (悅般都督府, Yuèpān Dūdùfû), Ghazni was the seat of the Tiaozhi Commandery (條枝都督府, Tiáozhī Dūdùfû).[34][35]

According to Chinese sources, in particular the chronicles of the

Tokhara Yabghu Pantu Nili — named Puluo (僕羅 púluó) in Chinese sources — visited the court of the Tang dynasty in Xi'an in 718 AD and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region, explaining that "two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" had been recognizing the authority of the Yabghus (specifically mentioning among them that "the king of Zabul rules two hundred thousand soldiers and horses, the king of Kabul two hundred thousand"), since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of their establishment.[36][37][g][h]

Conflict with the Arabs

Caliphal province of Sind (712-854 CE)
(c.475–c.776 CE)

Under

Zabul, in which the governor of Sistan acknowledged control of these territories by Rutbil and the King of Kabul.[39] Little more is known about the rule of Barha Tegin, but many of the early Turk Shahi coins are attributed to him.[43]

He was succeeded by his son

Umayyad caliph.[41][44] His territory comprised the area from Kabulistan to Gandhara and initially included Zabulistan, which came to be ruled by Rutbil (Turkic: Iltäbär), his elder brother, who founded the dynasty of the Zunbils.[44] Their relationship was at times antagonistic, but they fought together against Arab incursions.[44][45]

The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 683 AD: their general Abu Ubaida ibn Ziyad was imprisoned in Kabul and Governor of

Sijistan Yazid ibn Ziyad was killed as he attacked the city.[4][46] In 684–685, Kabul briefly comes under Arab control.[46] In 698 Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra of the Umayyad Caliphate lead an 'Army of Destruction' against the Zunbils, was defeated and was forced to offer a large tribute, give hostages including three of his sons and take an oath not to invade Zunbil again.[47] About 700 Ibn al-Ash'ath tried again to invade with the 'Peacock Army', but after some initial progress eventually formed a peace treaty with the Turks, and turned around to lead a rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy of the east, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.[48]

Tegin Shah apparently regained complete suzerainty over Zabulistan around 710 CE.[44] This appears from the accounts in the Chinese chronicles, which relates that the rulers of Zabulistan "subjugated themselves to Jibin (Kabul)", sometime between 710 and 720 CE.[49] During this period, it seems the Zunbils and the Turk Shahis intermittently accepted, or were forced to accept, payment of taxes to the Arabs, thereby acknowledging some form of political dependence, but resisted fiercely when the Arabs attempted to take a more direct military, political or religious control.[50]

From 711 CE, the Turk Shahis also had to face a Muslim threat from the southeast, as the campaigns of

Abbasid dependency.[51]

Tang dynasty investiture

In 719/20 CE, the Tegin of Kabulistan (

Tangshu
:

Portrait of the Turk Shahis ruler Tegin Shah, who received the investiture from the Tang Emperor in 719/720 CE, as "King of Jibin, Tegin (ruler) of the Khalaj".[44][18]

In the seventh year of the Kaiyuan reign [719 CE], [Jibin (Kabul) dispatched] envoys to the [Tang] court, who offered up a book of an astrological text, secret medical recipes, together with foreign medecines and other things. An imperial edict was issued to bestow on the king [of Jibin] the title Geluodazhi Tele [for "Tegin"].

The word "Geluodazhi" in this extract (Chinese: 葛罗达支, pronounced in

Iltäbär of the Khalaj".[53]

In 720 CE, the ruler of

Tangshu describing the country of Zabulistan (谢䫻, Xiėyù), mentioning how Zabulistan was a vassal to the Kabul Shah around the same period, and how the Zunbil ruler, named "Shiquer", was also recognized by the Chinese court:[55][56]

The people from Tujue (Turks), Jibin (

Iltäbär") Shiquer. Their envoys came to the royal court several times until the Tianbao era (742–756).

— Old Book of Tang, Book 221: account of Zabulistan (谢䫻 Xiėyù).[57]

These two Chinese accounts tend to confirm that the Turk Shahi and Zunbil rulers were Khalaj Turks.

Buddhists, and that the King of Kabul was the uncle of the ruler of Zabul.[59][44]

Victory over the Arabs

Royal figure with triple-crescent crown and halo, wearing a double-lapel caftan and boots, accompanied by a figure in armour. This is a possible depiction of Sun and Moon deities, showing Central Asian influence. Mural from the Fondukistan monastery, circa 700 AD.[60][61] Similarities can be seen with the Kizil Caves knights, indicating the continuity of Central Asian art under the patronage of the Western Turks.[62]

In 739 CE, Tegin abdicated in favour of his son Fromo Kesaro:[40][i]

In the 27th year [of Kaiyuan, ie 739 CE], the king Wusan Tela Sa [for Khorasan Tegin Shah] submitted a memorial requesting that due to his old age, his son Fulin Jisuo may succeed him on the throne. The emperor agreed and dispatched an envoy in order to confer the king's title on him through an imperial edict.

"Fromo Kesaro" is probable phonetic transcription of "Rome Caesar".[4][64] He was apparently named in honor of "Caesar", the title of the then East Roman Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs during the Siege of Constantinople in 717 AD, and sent an embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 AD which probably met with the Turk Shahis.[4][j] In Chinese sources "Fromo Kesaro" was aptly transcribed "Fulin Jisuo" (拂菻罽娑), "Fulin" (拂菻) being the standard Tang dynasty name for "Byzantine Empire" and Jisuo (罽娑) the phonetic transcription of "Caesar":[65][66][64][67]

Fromo Kesaro appears to have successfully fought against the Arabs.

Bactrian script:[69]

Sasanian drachm with Fromo Kesaro obverse and reverse rim overstrike in Bactrian.[70][71]

Obverse: ϕρoµo κησαρo βαγo χoαδηo κιδo βo ταzικανo χoργo
Reverse: oδo σαo βo σαβαγo ατo ι µo βo γαινδo

Fromo Kesaro, the Majestic Sovereign, [is] who defeated the Arabs and laid a tax [on them]. Thus they sent it.

— Rim legend of Sasanian and Arab coins overstruck by Fromo Kesaro[69][72][71][k]

Since these coins did not come out from Fromo Kesaro's foundries, but were simply pre-existing Arab/Sasanian coins which he overstruck on the rim with his victorious legends in Bactrian, it would seem that in all likelihood the coins underwent this rather simple overstriking procedure in the field, probably during one of his victorious campaigns against the Muslims.[68]

Fromo Kesaro's victories may have forged parts of the epic legend of the Tibetan King whose name appears to be phonetically similar: Phrom Ge-sar.[4][69]

Dissolution of the Tang protectorate

CALIPHAL
SIND
The Turk Shahis and Zunbils in South Asia, with neighbouring polities, circa 750 CE.[73]

In 745 AD, Fromo Kesaro's son Bo Fuzhun (勃匐準 Bo Fuzhun in Chinese sources) became the king, as recorded in the Old Book of Tang;[m] he was simultaneously conferred with the Tang title "General of the Left", which probably alludes to a strategic relationship between the Chinese and the Turk Shahis, in the context of expanding Islamic frontiers.[51]

The Chinese departed from the region c. 760 AD, following their strategic defeat at the

Caliph, asking for his submission, to which he conceded.[n][78] He was either a unique ruler of the Turk Shahis or identical with Bo Fuzhun.[78][79][80][81][82]

Renewed conflict with the Arabs and decline

caftan with double lapel, a belt and pointed boots, and Queen of Indian type, holding hands over cushions. Circa 700 AD.[60][83][84][85]

The struggle between the Arabs and the Turk Shahis continued into the 9th century AD.

Great Abbasid Civil War (811-819 AD), the Turk Shahi, named "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, invaded parts of Khorasan.[65] Once the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun prevailed in the Civil War, he sent troops to confront the Turk invaders: in 814/815 AD, the Turk Shahis were soundly defeated by these Arab troops, which pushed as far as Gandhara.[86][2] The Turk Shah now had to convert to Islam, and had to pay an annual tribute of 1,500,000 dirhams and 2,000 slaves to the Abbasid governor of Khorasan.[86][2] He also ceded a large and precious idol made of gold, silver and jewels, which was sent to Mecca.[65] Following Al-Azraqi
's initial account of 834 AD, Quṭb ed-Dîn wrote:

Now, when this King converted to Islam, he decided that the throne with the idol should be given as an offering for the

Ka'ba
. He therefore sent the throne to
Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, between Safa and Marwa, where it remained for three days.

— Quṭb ed-Dîn, History of the city of Mecca[87]

Al-Azraqi also made a very detailed description of the statue, which points to a crowned and bejewelled Buddha seated on a throne, a design otherwise well known and quite specific to this historical period for the region of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[88] In the south, the Zunbil Turk Shahis escaped unaffected and continued to rule for about two more decades, before falling in 870/871 AD to the Saffarids under an upstart adventurer Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar.[89]

Takeover by the Hindu Shahis (822 CE)

According to the Arab chronicler

Hindu Shahi took over, with its capital in Kabul.[2] To the south, the Zunbils
held fort against Muslim forces until the Saffarid offensive of 870 CE.

Society and Religion

Remains of a Buddhist monastery at Mes Aynak, near Kabul, which remained in use until the 9th century AD.[91]
Hui Chao reported that the Turk King, Queen and dignitaries practiced Buddhism. 726 AD.[92]

The

Triratna and dedicated many Buddhist temples:[92]

(...) 至罽賓國。(...) 此國土人是胡。王及兵馬突厥。(...) 國人大敬信三寶。足寺足僧。百姓家各絲造寺。供養三寶。大城中有一寺。名沙糸寺。寺中貝佛螺髻骨舍利見在王官百姓每日供養。此國行小乘。
(...) I arrived in

The Kingdoms of Central Asia, often Buddhist or with an important Buddhist community, were generally under the formal control of the Tang dynasty, had regular exchanges with China, and expected Tang protection.

Brahmanical revivalism" was pushing Indian Buddhist monks out of their country.[100][96]

According to the Chinese pilgrim

Brahmanism too seems to have flourished, but to a lesser extent, under the Turk Shahis, with various works of art also attributed to their period.[92][101]

At the end of the 10th century, the

Ghaznavid dynasty.[102][103] At that time, local Buddhist Turk communities seem to have mingled with the newly arrived Muslim Turks of the Samanid Empire, forming an ethnic continuity among the ruling class of Ghazni. The local Buddhist Turks progressively islamized, but there was a continuation in artistic development and Buddhist religious activities, not a break.[103] The Buddhist site of Qol-i Tut in Kabul remained in use until the end of the 11th century.[103]

Coinage

caftan, and a crown with three crescents (one hidden from view) surmounted by the head of a wolf, a Turkic symbol.[105] Late 7th to early 8th century AD.[106][91][107]

From the middle of the 7th century AD, the Turk Shahis emulated the coinage of their predecessors, the

Pahlavi script. But the style of the rulers in the coins was now quite different, and the coins were of markedly higher silver quality.[42] Soon, these coins introduced a new legend in replacement of the "King of Nezaks" legend, using the Indian honorific "Shri" ("Perfection") with the royal title "Shahi" in the Bactrian language (σριο Þανιο, Srio šauoi) and in Sanskrit (Śri Sāhi).[108][84] This new coinage corresponds to the formal establishment of the Turk Shahis, sometime after 661 AD.[1][84]

In later stages, the crown adorned with a bull's head is replaced by a crown consisting in three crescent moons in the middle of which a flower or trident is set.

Many of these coins are attributed to

  • Early coin of the Turk Shahis, in the style of the Nezak Huns. The Turk Shahis replaced the Pahlavi legend of the Nezaks by a Bactrian script legend σριο Þανιο "Srio Shaho" i.e. "Lord King", with tamgha. The crown is now made of crescents. Late 7th century AD.[108]
    Early coin of the Turk Shahis, in the style of the
    tamgha. The crown is now made of crescents. Late 7th century AD.[108]
  • Crowns with the head of a lion or a wolf[105] as central symbol, on the obverses of two Turk Shahi coins. This new symbol replaced the earlier bull's head of Nezak Huns coinage.[112]
    Crowns with the head of a lion or a wolf[105] as central symbol, on the obverses of two Turk Shahi coins. This new symbol replaced the earlier bull's head of Nezak Huns coinage.[112]
  • Sasanian-style trilingual coin of Tegin Shah towards the end of his reign. Iranian god Adur on the reverse. Obverse legend: "His Excellence, the Iltäbär of Khalaj, Worshipper of the highest God, His Excellence, the King, the divine Tegin […]".[114] Date in Pahlavi: 728 AD
    Iltäbär of Khalaj, Worshipper of the highest God, His Excellence, the King, the divine Tegin […]".[114] Date in Pahlavi
    : 728 AD
  • A Turk Shahis ruler named Sandan, otherwise unknown. Copy of a late issue of Khusrau II, combining Brahmi script around the ruler, Bactrian script along the two rims, where "ςανδανο βαγο χοαδηο" "Lord King Sandan" is mentioned, and Pahlavi around the altar on the reverse.[115][116]
    A Turk Shahis ruler named Sandan, otherwise unknown. Copy of a late issue of
    Bactrian script along the two rims, where "ςανδανο βαγο χοαδηο" "Lord King Sandan" is mentioned, and Pahlavi around the altar on the reverse.[115][116]

Art

There was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Turk Shahis during 7-8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development of

Kabul Museum
.

Buddhist works of art

The works of art of this period in eastern Afghanistan, with a sophistication and iconography comparable to other works of art of the

Nezak-Alchon Huns), who, in the words of Edmund Bosworth, "were not capable of such work".[62] And, soon after, the expansion of Islam made the creation of such works of art impossible.[62]

The style as well as the techniques used in making these works of art (modelling of clay mixed with straw, wool or horsehair), are characteristic of the paintings and sculptures of

Devotees or sponsors wearing Central Asian clothes such as the tight-fitting double-lapel

Monastery of Fondukistan, as in the statue of a King wearing the caftan and pointed boots, seated together with a Queen of Indian type, and dated to the 7th century CE.[120][84]

Dedications including coins of the Buddhist Turk Shahis and one Sasanian coin of

caftan with double lapel and boots", characteristic of Central Asian clothing.[121][122]

Hindu works of art

Hinduism too seems to have flourished to some extent under the Turk Shahis, with various works of art also attributed to their period.

Fondukistan have been identified.[129] Archaeologically, the construction of the Khair Khaneh temple itself is now dated to 608-630 CE, at the beginning of the Turk Shahis period.[131]

The marble statue of Ganesha from Gardez is now attributed to the Turk Shahis,[129] and was donated by a certain "Śrī Ṣāhi Khiṃgāla", possibly the Turk Shahi king named "Khingala" who according to Al-Yakubhi gave his submission to Al-Mahdi in 775–785 CE.[132][133][134]

See also

Notes

  1. Rukhkhaj and Zamindawar.[20] Bost and Zabulistan submitted to the Arab invader by a treaty of capitulation in 656 CE.[20] However, the Muslims soon lost control of these territories during the First Civil War (656-661), which led to the replacement of the Rashidun caliphate by the Umayyad Caliphate in 661.[20]
  2. ^ Ibn A'tham al-Kufi notes that the ruler of Kabul mounted periodic resistance against Samura before retreating into the city.[21] This ruler is unfavorably compared to Samura, who had persisted in the siege despite difficulties.[22]
  3. ^ 'Turk" was used rather liberally in sources to describe a wide spectrum of alien people. Xuanzang, returning via Kapisa in 643 C.E., had already noted Turk ascendancy in the region — Turks held power over Vṛjisṭhānā, a minor state between Kapisi and Gandhara.[25]
  4. Hu people; there are Brahmins. The country was formerly under the influence of the king of Kapisa. A-yeh [alternatively read as "The father", than a personal name, referring to Barha Tegin, father of then-King Tegin Shah[28]] of the Turkish King took a defeated cavalry [alternatively "led an army and a tribe" or "led troops of his entire tribe"[28]] and allied himself to the king of Kapisa. Later, when the Turkish force was strong, the prince assassinated the king of Kapisa [possibly Ghar-ilchi] and declared himself king. Thereafter, the territory from this country to the north was all ruled by the Turkish king, who also resided in the country.

  5. ^ The account goes as:[30]

    The Hindus had kings residing in Kabul, Turks who were said to be of Tibetan origin. The first of them, Barhatakin, came into the country and entered a cave in Kabul, which none could enter except by creeping on hands and knees. [...] Some days after he had entered the cave, he began to creep out of it in the presence of the people, who looked on him as a newborn baby. He wore Turkish dress, a short tunic open in front, a high hat, boots and arms. Now people honoured him as a being of miraculous origin, who had been destined to be king, and in fact he brought those countries under his sway and ruled them under the title of a Shahiya of Kabul. The rule remained among his descendants for generations, the number of which is said to be about sixty. [...] The last king of this race was Lagatarman, and his Vizir was Kallar, a Brahman.

    — Al-Biruni,Tārīkh al-Hind ("History of India")
  6. ^ Baladhuri notes of the "Kabul Shah" that he purged all Muslims out of Kabul (city - ?) and "Rutbil" (ex-ruler of Zabul) and regained control of Bost and Rukhdwaj the same year, drawing Arab forces into renewed offensive.[31] Whether the "Kabul Shah" refers to the first Turk Shahi or the last Nezak cannot be confirmed; in case of the latter, the resulting conflict would have provided a ground for the rise of Turk Shahis.[32]
  7. Zabul.[38]
  8. JSTOR 29757642. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Original text of Cefu Yuangui 3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999: 六年十一月丁未阿史特勒僕羅上書訴曰僕羅克吐火羅葉䕶部下管諸國王都督刺史總二百一十二人謝颺國王統領兵馬二十萬衆罽賔國王統領兵馬二十萬衆骨吐國王石汗那國王解蘓國王石匿國王悒達國王䕶宻國王䕶時健國王范延國王久越徳建國王勃特山王各領五萬衆僕羅祖父已来並是上件諸國之王蕃望尊重僕羅兄般都泥利承嫡繼襲先𫎇恩勑差使持節就本國册立為王然火羅葉䕶積代以來扵大唐忠赤朝貢不絶本國緣接近大食吐蕃東界又是西鎮僕羅兄每徴發部落下兵馬討論擊諸賊與漢軍相知聲援應接在扵邊境所以免有侵漁僕羅兄前後屢𫎇聖澤媿荷國恩遂發遣僕羅入朝侍衛玉階至願獻忠殉命以為臣妾僕羅至此為不解漢法鴻臚寺不委蕃望大小有不比類流例髙下相懸即奏擬授官竊見石國龜兹并余小國王子首領等入朝元無功効並緣蕃望授三品将軍况僕羅身恃勤本蕃位望與親王一種北䫫大小與諸國王子懸殊却授僕羅四品中郎但在蕃王子弟娑羅門瞿曇金剛龜兹王子白孝順等皆數改轉位至諸衛將軍唯僕羅最是大蕃去神龍元年𫎇恩勑授左領軍衛翊府中郎將至今經一十四年久被淪屈不𫎇准例授職不勝苦屈之甚勑鴻臚卿准例定品秩勿令稱屈 in "冊府元龜 (四庫全書本)/卷0999 - 维基文库,自由的图书馆"
    . zh.m.wikisource.org.
  9. ^ Martin 2011, p. 127:"He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
  10. ^ Martin 2011, p. 127:"He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
  11. ^ The study of these new coins originally appeared in "New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85, plates. XI-XIII
  12. ^ Tianbao (天寶, 742–756), era name used by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
  13. ^

    天寶四年,又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王,仍授左驍衛將軍
    In the 4th year of the Tianbao reign [745 CE][l] another imperial edict was issued to make his [i.e. Fromo Kesaro's] son Bo Fuzun succeed him on the throne as the King of Jibin and Uddiyana. He was conferred the title of "General of Left Stalwart Guard".

    — Old Book of Tang, Book 198.[18][74]
  14. Sind, al-Rāy; the king of China, Baghbür; the king of India and Atrāḥ, Wahūfūr; and the king of the Tughuz-ghuz, Khāqān.

    — Ya'qubi (died 897/8), Ta'rikh ("History")[76][77]
  15. Hephthalite influence.[110] The painting may be an allegory of a King abandoning violence, particularly the hunting of animals, and converting to Buddhism.[111]

References

  1. ^
    Khusro II dating from year 37 of his reign (= 626/7). The two countermarks on Khusro 's drachm prove that the urn could only have been deposited after 689" Alram 2014
    , pp. 282–285
  2. ^ a b c d Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 16. The Hindu Shahis in Kabulistan and Gandhara and the Arab Conquest". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  3. .
  4. ^ .
  5. ^ "The advance of Islamic forces both into Tokharistan in the north and into Zabulistan farther south was opposed by local rulers of probably Western Turkish identity" in Vondrovec, Klaus. "Coinage of the Nezak": 181. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ a b "The new rulers of Kabul, who according to me were Khalaj Turks, extended their rule over the former territory of the Kapisi kingdom [Kapisa to Gandhara], while a branch of them became independent in Zabulistan. A Korean monk Huichao (慧超) who visited these regions in the third decade of the 8th century, reported that both regions were ruled by the Turkish kings." Inaba, Minoru. "From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia": 443–444. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. . A Bactrian Document (BD T) from this period brings interesting information about the area to our attention. In it, dated to BE 476 (701 AD), a princess identified as `Bag-aziyas, the Great Turkish Princess, the Queen of Qutlugh Tapaghligh Bilga Sävüg, the Princess of the Khalach, the Lady of Kadagestan offers alms to the local god of the region of Rob, known as Kamird, for the health of (her) child. Inaba, arguing for the Khalaj identity of the kings of Kabul, takes this document as a proof that the Khalaj princess is from Kabul and has been offered to the (Hephthalite) king of Kadagestan, thus becoming the lady of that region. The identification of Kadagestan as a Hephthalite stronghold is based on Grenet's suggestion of the survival of Hephthalite minor stares in this region...
  8. ^ "Ḵalaj i. Tribe – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2021-01-15.
  9. ^ a b c Inaba, Minoru (2010). Khotan in the last quarter of the first millennium: is there artistic evidence of the interrelation between Khotan and Tibet? A preliminary survey, Coins, Art and Chronology II: From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 443–444.
  10. ^ "The period from 560 CE onwards would be that of the Western Turks, although it is not clear how and foremost when they gained power over Bactria and the Hindukush-region. Minoru Inaba states that "gradually having extended their power, they came to be independent ..."" in Vondrovec, Klaus. "Coinage of the Nezak": 173. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  11. .
  12. ^ "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome"". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  13. .
  14. .
  15. .
  16. .
  17. ^ Rahman 2002a, p. 37.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g Balogh 2020, p. 104.
  19. ^ Ziad 2022, p. 59, 89.
  20. ^ a b c Morony 2012, p. 216.
  21. ^ Rehman 1976, pp. 58–59.
  22. ^ Rehman 1976, pp. 59.
  23. ^ Rehman 1976, pp. 59, 64.
  24. .
  25. ^ Ziad 2022, p. 50, 87.
  26. ^ Rahman 2002a, p. 37, 39.
  27. ^ Kuwayama 2000, p. 59.
  28. ^ a b Kuwayama 1993.
  29. ISBN 978-0-89581-024-3Also published by the Asian Humanities Press, 1986, Issue 2 of Religions of Asia series Unesco collection of representative works{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link
    )
  30. .
  31. ^ Rehman 1976, pp. 64.
  32. ^ Ziad 2022, p. 90.
  33. ^ "China, at the other end of Central Asia, managed to bring the Western branch of the Qaγanate under Tang supremacy in 658 CE and consequently established a protectorate in Bactria which also extended south of the Hindukush." in Vondrovec, Klaus. "Coinage of the Nezak": 681. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  34. .
  35. ^ Theobald, Ulrich. "The Western Territories 西域 (www.chinaknowledge.de)". www.chinaknowledge.de.
  36. ^ .
  37. ^ Kuwayama, S. (2002). Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium: a collection of the papers (PDF). Kyoto University. p. 139.
  38. JSTOR 29757642
    .
  39. ^ .
  40. ^ .
  41. ^ a b Vondrovec, Klaus. Coins, Art and Chronology II - The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands (Coinage of the Nezak). p. 183.
  42. ^ .
  43. ^ Kuwayama 1993, p. 394.
  44. ^ a b c d e f g h i Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 14. Kabulistan and Bactria at the Time of "Khorasan Tegin Shah"". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  45. .
  46. ^ .
  47. .
  48. ^ Hugh Kennedy,The Great Arab Conquests',2007, pages 194-198
  49. .
  50. .
  51. ^ .
  52. ^ "Original Chinese: 开元七年,遣使来朝,进天文经一夹、秘要方并蕃药等物,诏遣册其王为葛罗达支特勒。". www.guoxue123.com.
  53. ^ a b c Balogh 2020, p. 105.
  54. .
  55. .
  56. .
  57. .
  58. ^ Inaba, Minoru. "From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia": 445. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  59. .
  60. ^ .
  61. .
  62. ^ .
  63. ^ Original Chinese: 二十七年,其王乌散特勒洒以年老,上表请以子拂菻罽婆嗣位,许之,仍降使册命。"卷一百九十八 列传第一百四十八_旧唐书". www.guoxue123.com.
  64. ^ a b Piras, Andrea. "Fromo Kesaro. Echi del prestigio di Bisanzio in Asia Centrale, in Polidoro. Studi offerti ad Antonio Carile, a cura di G. Vespignani (Centro italiano di Studi sull'Alto Medioevo), Spoleto 2013, pp. 671-690": 681. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  65. ^ .
  66. ^ Balogh 2020, p. 106.
  67. ^ Li, Qiang (2017). "Handbook of the International Symposium on "Byzantine Gold Coins in the World of Late Antiquity"". 中国 · 长春.
  68. ^ .
  69. ^ .
  70. ^ "New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85, plates. XI-XIII
  71. ^ .
  72. .
  73. .
  74. ^ Kuwayama, S. (2002). Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium: a collection of papers (PDF). INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH IN HUMANITIES KYOTO UNIVERSITY. p. 259.
  75. .
  76. .
  77. ^ Rahman, A. (2002). "New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis" (PDF). Ancient Pakistan: 41.
  78. ^ a b Kuwayama, Shoshin (1999). "Historical Notes on Kapisi and Kabul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries" (PDF). ZINBUN. 34: 44.
  79. ^ "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome"". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  80. ^ Inaba, Minoru. "From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia": 446. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  81. ^ 天寶四年,又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王,仍授左驍衞將軍。"Kesar's son Bo Fuzhun succeed him on the throne as the king of Jibin and Wuchang. He was conferred the title General of the Left Stalwart Guard" in Balogh 2020, p. 104
  82. .
  83. .
  84. ^ a b c d e f Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 12. Zabulistan: From the Alkhan-Nezak Crossover to the Turks". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  85. ^ A recent highly detailed view: "Les trésors sataniques - Satanic treasures – Patrick Chapuis Photographe". patrickchapuis.photoshelter.com.
  86. ^ .
  87. ^ transl. from Wüstenfeld (Wüstenfeld, III, 186: 190–191). The transcription of the Arabic follows Wüstenfeld. in Klimburg-Salter, Deborah (210). "Cultural Mobility, a Case Study: the Crowned Buddha of the Kabul Shāh" in: Coins, Art and Chronology II The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 42–43.
  88. ^ "As we shall see, this particular conjunction of iconographic features described by al-Azraqî is quite rare and is in fact limited to the northwest of the subcontinent – from Afghanistan to Kashmir – and to this period." in Klimburg-Salter, Deborah (210). "Cultural Mobility, a Case Study: the Crowned Buddha of the Kabul Shāh" in: Coins, Art and Chronology II The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 46.
  89. ^ Rehman 1976.
  90. ^ D. W. Macdowall, "The Shahis of Kabul and Gandhara" Numismatic Chronicle, Seventh Series, Vol. III, 1968, pp. 189-224, see extracts in R. T. Mohan, AFGHANISTAN REVISITED ... Appendix –B, pp. 164-68
  91. ^ a b c d Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 13. The Turk Shahis in Kabulistan". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  92. ^
    JSTOR 29756318
    .
  93. ^ .
  94. .
  95. .
  96. ^ .
  97. .
  98. .
  99. .
  100. ^ .
  101. ^ Images of the sculptures of Khair Khana in "Afghanistan Significant Site 120. Khair Khana". www.cemml.colostate.edu.
  102. ^ .
  103. ^ Kuwayama 1993, p. 394, Coin E.254.
  104. ^ a b c Kuwayama 1993, p. 394, For a clear example of the wolf, see [1]. Also: Vilurayukari Period of Sahi Tigin.
  105. ^ Göbl 1967, 254 ; Vondrovec type 254
  106. ^ See coin 3 from the same ruler in Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 14. Kabulistan and Bactria at the Time of "Khorasan Tegin Shah"". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  107. ^ a b Alram 2014, p. 282.
  108. ^ Joseph Hackin affirms the "close connection" between the triple-crescent crown of the Kakrak Hunter King and this coin from Ghazni, Zabulistan, also describing the double-lapel caftan worn by the ruler on the coin: Hackin, Joseph (1936). L'Œuvre de la Délégation Archéologique Française en Afghanistan (1922-1932) : vol.1. p. 49.
  109. ^ a b Compareti, Matteo (2008). "The Painting of the "Hunter-King" at Kakrak: Royal Figure or Divine Being?". Studio Editoriale Gordini: 133.
  110. ^ "According to Jäger’s interpretation, the so-called «Hunter-King» was a symbolic representation of a royal person who converted to Buddhism and abandoned hunting and violence in general." in Compareti, Matteo (2008). "The Painting of the "Hunter-King" at Kakrak: Royal Figure or Divine Being?". Studio Editoriale Gordini: 133.
  111. ^ .
  112. ^ Vondrovec, Klaus. Coins, Art and Chronology II - The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands (Coinage of the Nezak). p. 183.
  113. ^ Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 14. Kabulistan and Bactria at the Time of "Khorasan Tegin Shah"". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
  114. ^ "Coin type IOC.2367 British Museum". The British Museum.
  115. .
  116. .
  117. ^ .
  118. ^ a b For the photograph of the famous statue, named the "Royal Couple of Fondukistan", see: "FondoqesāN – Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org.
  119. JSTOR 43475079
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  120. ^ "Fondukistan Digitaler Ausstellungskatalog". pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna.
  121. JSTOR 43475079
    .
  122. .
  123. ^ "Metropolitan Museum of Art". www.metmuseum.org.
  124. ^ "Recherches Archéologiques au Col de Khair khaneh près de Kābul : vol.1 / Page 77 (Grayscale High Resolution Image)". dsr.nii.ac.jp.
  125. ^ . Khair Khaneh is situated in the pass separating the Kabul Valley from Kohistan (which includes Begram). Kushano–Sasanian and early Hindu art motifs mingle in a whitish-gray marble statue of the Sun God (either Surya or Mithra) seated on a ...
  126. .
  127. ^ Journal of the American Oriental Society (Volumes 56-57 ed.). 1986. To overcome the difficulty that Pingala wears a beard , the Kabirs had to be introduced , Great Gods of Samothrake who ... This feature brings the sun - god of Khair Khaneh as close as possible to the Iranian Mithras , who guides the soul of the ...
  128. ^
    JSTOR 29756318
    .
  129. ^ Images of the sculptures of Khair Khaneh in "Afghanistan Significant Site 120. Khair Khana". www.cemml.colostate.edu.
  130. JSTOR 29756318
    .
  131. ^ Inaba, Minoru. "From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia": 446. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  132. ^ "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome"". Pro.geo.univie.ac.at. Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna. Retrieved July 22, 2017.
  133. ^ KUWAYAMA, Shoshin (1999). "Historical Notes on Kapisi and Kabul in the Sixth-Eighth Centuries" (PDF). ZINBUN. 34: 44.
  134. ^ De l'Inde au Japon, 10 ans d'acquisitions au musée Guimet. Musée Guimet. 2007. p. 14, item 27.

Sources