Hammam
A hammam (
In Islamic cultures the significance of the hammam was both religious and civic: it provided for the needs of
In a modern hammam visitors undress themselves, while retaining some sort of modesty garment or loincloth, and proceed into progressively hotter rooms, inducing perspiration. They are then usually washed by male or female staff (matching the gender of the visitor) with the use of soap and vigorous rubbing, before ending by washing themselves in warm water.[4] Unlike in Roman or Greek baths, bathers usually wash themselves with running water instead of immersing themselves in standing water since this is a requirement of Islam,[2] though immersion in a pool used to be customary in the hammams of some regions such as Iran.[5] While hammams everywhere generally operate in fairly similar ways, there are some regional differences both in usage and architecture.[4]
Etymology
The word "hammam" (حَمَّام) is a noun meaning "bath", "bathroom", "bathhouse", "swimming pool", etc. derived from the Arabic triconsonantal root H-M-M (ح م م) which yields meanings related to heat or heating.[6][7][8] This is also the root of the word al-ḥamma (الحَمَّة) meaning hot spring, origin of the name of the Alfama neighborhood in Lisbon.[9] From Arabic حمّام, it passed on to Persian (حمام) and Turkish (hamam).[1][10] The first recorded use of the term 'Turkish bath' in English was in 1644.[11]
History
Origins and early development
Public bathhouses were a prominent civic and urban institution in Roman and Hellenistic culture and were found throughout the Mediterranean world. They remained important in the cities of the early Byzantine Empire up to around the mid-6th century, after which the construction of new bathhouses declined and existing ones were gradually abandoned.[12][13][14]
Following the
The earliest known Islamic hammams were built in
Muslims retained many of the main elements of the classical bathhouses while leaving out functions which were less relevant to their practices. For example, the progression from cold room to hot room was maintained, but it was no longer common practice to take a plunge in cold water after leaving the hot room, nor was exercise incorporated into bathing culture as it was in classical gymnasiums.[17][1] Likewise, Muslim bathers usually washed themselves in running water rather than immersing themselves in standing water.[2] Although in early Islamic history women did not normally patronise hammams, by around the 10th century many places started to provide separate hours (or separate facilities) for men and women.[1] The hammam then took on an important role in women's social life as one of the few public spaces where they could gather and socialise apart from men.[15][19] Some hammams were privately owned or formed parts of palaces and mansions, but in many cases they were civic or charitable institutions which formed part of larger religious/civic complexes. Such complexes were governed by waqf agreements, and hammams often acted as a source of revenue for the upkeep of other institutions such as mosques.[4][20]
Later Islamic baths
In the 11th century the Seljuk Empire conquered much of Anatolia from the Byzantine Empire, eventually leading to the complete conquest of the remnants of the old empire in the 15th century. During those centuries of war, peace, alliance, trade and competition, these intermixing cultures (Eastern Roman, Islamic Persian and Turkic
Later the Ottomans became prolific patrons of hammams. Since they were social centres as well as baths, they were built in almost every city across their European, Asian, and African territories. The Ottomans were thus responsible for introducing hammams to much of eastern and central Europe, where many still exist today in various states of restoration or disrepair. Such Turkish baths are found as far as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Greece, and Hungary.[21][22][23] Many early Ottoman hammams survive in Bursa and Edirne, as well as in Eastern Europe and Anatolia, but hammams became even more numerous and architecturally ambitious in Constantinople (Istanbul), thanks to its royal patronage, its large population and its access to plentiful water.[24] The city's Greek inhabitants had retained a strong Eastern Roman bath culture, with the Baths of Zeuxippus constituting one early example.[25] Ottoman architects expanded on the experience of Byzantine architects to create particularly well-balanced designs with greater symmetry and regularity in the arrangement of space than could be seen in hammams in other parts of the Muslim world.[4] Some of the city's oldest monumental hammams are the Tahtakale Hamam (probably built right after 1454), the Mahmut Pasha Hamam (built in 1466), and the Bayezid II Hamam (built some time between 1500 and 1507).[21] The monumental hammams designed by the 16th-century Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan (1489–1588), such as the Çemberlitaş Hamamı, the Süleymaniye Hamam (in the complex of the Süleymaniye Mosque), and the Haseki Hürrem Sultan Hamam, are major examples of hammams that were built later in the era of classical Ottoman architecture.[21] When Sultan Mustafa III issued a decree halting the construction of new public baths in the city in 1768, it seems to have resulted in an increase in the number of private hammams among the wealthy and the elites, especially in the Bosphorus suburbs where they built luxurious summer homes.[24]
In Iran, many examples of hammams survive from the Safavid period (16th–18th centuries) onward, with the historic city of Isfahan in particular containing many examples.[20] The spread of Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent also introduced hammams to this region, with many examples surviving in Mughal architecture (16th–19th centuries).[26]
Contemporary era
Hammams continued to be a vital part of urban life in the Muslim world until the early 20th century when the spread of
In Turkey many historic hammams continue to operate either for locals or for tourists; in some cases this has led to neglected historic hammams such as the Kılıç Ali Pasa Hamamı and the Hürrem Sultan Hamamı being renovated and returned to their original function, while others were abandoned or repurposed.[28][29][27] In Morocco, many hammams continue to serve locals in historic cities such as Fes and Marrakesh, where they are especially useful to the urban poor residing in the old cities (medinas).[17][2][30] In many other regions, however, hammams have become obsolete and have either been abandoned or converted to other uses. In Iran, some baths continue to operate in the historic districts of cities like Isfahan where they continue to serve religious functions, but there is an overall decline in their numbers. Many surviving Iranian examples have been converted to other uses, most notably as restaurants and teahouses.[20] In Damascus, Syria, only thirteen hammams were still operating in 2004, mostly in the old city; many others had been either demolished or repurposed.[2] Cairo in Egypt contained an estimated 77 operational hammams at the beginning of the 19th century but only eight were still in business by the start of the 21st century, with many others abandoned or neglected.[31] In the former European territories of the Ottoman Empire such as Greece and the Balkans many hammams became defunct or were neglected in modern times, although some have now been restored and turned into historic monuments or cultural centres.[23][32]
Public bathing in the Islamic context
Prayer is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and it is customary to perform ablutions before praying. The two Islamic forms of ablution are ghusl, a full-body cleansing, and wudu, a cleansing of the face, hands, and feet.[33] In the absence of water, cleansing with pure soil or sand is also permissible.[34] Mosques always provide a place to wash, but hammams are often located nearby for deeper cleansing.[2] Many are actually part of mosque complexes.
Hammams, particularly in Morocco, evolved from their Roman origins to meet the needs of ritual purification according to Islam. For example, in most Roman-style hammams, there was a cold pool for submersion of the body, a style of bathing that finds less favour with Islam which regards bathing under running water without being fully submerged more appropriate.[2]
Al-Ghazali, a prominent Muslim theologian of the 11th century, wrote Revival of the Religious Sciences, a multi-volume work discussing the appropriate forms of conduct for many aspects of Muslim life and death. One of the volumes, entitled The Mysteries of Purity, details the proper technique for performing ablutions before prayer and the major ablution (ghusil) after anything which renders it necessary, such as the emission of semen.[35] For al-Ghazali, the hammam is a primarily male institution, and he cautions that women should only enter a hammam after childbirth or illness. However, even al-Ghazali thought it admissible for men to prohibit their wives or sisters from using the hammam. For al-Ghazali the main point of contention surrounding hammams was nakedness, and he warned that overt nakedness was to be avoided ("… he should shield it from the sight of others and second, guard against the touch of others.") [36] His writing focused especially on the need to avoid touching the penis during bathing and after urination, and wrote that nakedness was decent only when the area between a man's knees and lower stomach was hidden. For women he suggested that only exposure of the face and palms was appropriate. According to al-Ghazali, nakedness in the hammam could incite indecent thoughts and behaviours, hence its controversial nature.[37]
In Islam ritual ablution is also required before or after sexual intercourse.[38] Knowing that, May Telmissany, a professor at the University of Ottawa, argues that the image of a hyper-sexualised woman leaving the hammam is an Orientalist way of looking at things that sees leaving or attending the hammam as an indicator of sexual behaviour.[31][39]
Bathing practices and services
Most hammams expect their clients to undress down to a modesty garment or loincloth, before proceeding from a cold room to progressively hotter rooms. Men are usually washed by male bath attendants and women by female attendants before they are given a massage. Some details of the process vary from region to region, such as the presence or absence of pools where visitors can immerse themselves in water.[4] In more conservative areas women are less likely to bathe in just their underwear while in areas where hammams have become the preserve mainly of tourists there is more likelihood that women will bathe naked. Some hammam complexes contain separate sections for men and women; elsewhere men and women are admitted at different times in which case the hours for women are usually far more limited than those for men.
Traditionally hammams, especially those for women, doubled as places of entertainment with dancing and food being shared. It was common to visit hammams before weddings or religious holidays, to celebrate births, to swap beauty tips, etc. Women also used visits to the hammam to size up potential wives for their sons.[citation needed]
Some accessories from Roman times survive in modern hammams, such as the
Traditionally, the bathhouse masseurs (Turkish: tellak) were young men who soaped and scrubbed their clients. However, the tellaks were replaced by adult attendants during the 20th century.[40]
Massage
A massage in a Turkish bath is likely to involve not just vigorous muscle kneading, but also
Social function: gendered social space
Arab hammams are gendered spaces where being a woman or a man can make someone included or excluded. Therefore, they represent a departure from the public sphere in which one is physically exposed amongst other women or men. This declaration of sexuality merely by being nude makes hammams a site of gendered expression. One exception to this gender segregation is the presence of young boys who often accompany their mothers until they reach the age of five or six when they switch to attending the male hammam with their fathers.[43][38]
Women's hammams play a special role in society. Valerie Staats finds that the women's hammams of Morocco serve as a social space where traditional and modern women from urban and rural areas of the country come together, regardless of their religiosity, to bathe and socialise.[44] The bathing regulations laid down by al-Ghazali and other Islamic intellectuals are not usually upheld in the everyday interactions of Moroccans in the hammam. Staats argues that hammams are places where women can feel more at ease than in many other public interactions.[45] In addition, in his work Sexuality in Islam, Abdelwahab Bouhdiba cites the hammam as a place where homosexual encounters in general can take place.[46][47] He notes that some historians found evidence of hammams as spaces for sexual expression among women, which they believed was a result of the universality of nudity in these spaces.[46] Hammams have also been associated with male homosexuality over the centuries and up to the present day.[46][48]: 14 [49]
Architecture
Part of a series on |
Arabic culture |
---|
General design
The hammam combines the functionality and structural elements of the
Although there were variations across different regions and periods, the general plan and architectural principles of hammams were very similar. They consisted of a sequence of rooms which bathers visited in the same order: the changing room or undressing room (corresponding to the Roman apodyterium), the cold room (like the Roman frigidarium), the warm room (like the tepidarium), and the hot room (like the caldarium). The nomenclature for these different rooms varied from region to region. The changing room was known generally as al-mashlaḥ or al-maslakh in Arabic, or by local vernacular terms like goulsa in Fez (Morocco) and maḥras in Tunisia, whereas it was known as the camekân in Turkish and the sarbineh in Persian. The cold room was known as the bayt al-barid in al-Andalus, el-barrani in Fez, bayt awwal in Cairo, and soğukluk in Turkish. The warm room or intermediate room was known as bayt al-wastani in al-Andalus and many other regions, as el-wasti in Fez, as bīt əs-skhūn in Tunis, and as ılıklık in Turkish. The hot room was called the bayt al-sakhun in al-Andalus, ad-dakhli in Fez, harara in Cairo, garmkhaneh in Persian, and hararet or sıcaklık in Turkish.[4][1][51][2][17][28]
The main chambers of the hammam were usually covered with vaulted or domed ceilings, giving them a distinctive profile. The domes and vaults of the steam rooms (especially the hot room) were usually pierced with small holes or skylights which provided natural light during the day while allowing excess steam to escape.[1][4] The ceiling and walls were clad with steam-proof materials such as varnished plaster or (for the lower walls and floors) marble.[4] The vestibule, or changing room, was often one of the most highly decorated chambers, featuring a central fountain surrounded by benches.[18][4] In Ottoman baths, the main changing room often offered multi-level wooden galleries giving access to smaller changing rooms.[21]: 160 Toilets or latrines were often included in the complex.[2][18]
Most historic hammams made use of some version or derivation of the Roman hypocaust underfloor system for heating.[1][2] A furnace or set of furnaces were located in a service room behind the walls of the hot room and set at a lower level than the steam rooms. The furnaces were used to heat water (usually in a large cauldron above them) which was then delivered to the steam rooms. At the same time, hot air and smoke from the furnaces was channeled through pipes or conduits under the floor of the steam rooms, thus heating the rooms, before rising through the walls and out the chimneys. As hot water was constantly needed, they were kept burning throughout the hours of operation. Although wood was continuously needed for fuel, some hammams, such as those in Morocco, Turkey and Damascus, also made use of recycled organic materials from other industries such as wood shavings from carpenters' workshops and olive pits from the olive presses.[2]
Some hammams were "double" hammams, having separate facilities for women and men.
Variations
Maghreb and al-Andalus
Regional variations in hammam architecture usually relate to the relative proportions of each room or the absence of one type of room. In the Maghreb, and especially in al-Andalus, the largest and most important steam room was typically the warm room (al-wastani). The Arab Baths of Jaén is one of the more extreme examples of this since the warm room is as large as both the cold and hot rooms combined, possibly because it was also used for body massages and other services.[16] The changing room was also fairly large and was typically the only space to feature any significant architectural decoration.[3]
-
Reconstructed interior of the Caliphal Baths in Cordoba, Spain (10th century)
-
Vaulted ceiling of warm room in the hammam of the Almohad-era Alcázar of Jerez de la Frontera in Spain (12th century)
-
Room at the Baños del Almirante, a historic Andalusi bathhouse in Valencia, Spain (c. 1320)[citation needed]
Ottoman baths
In Ottoman baths the cold room is often either omitted completely or combined with the changing room (known as the camekân or soyunmalık).[21]: 160 [52][28] This room is often the largest domed chamber in the complex, with the dome supported on squinches, "Turkish triangles", or decorative muqarnas. It usually features a central fountain (şadırvan) and is ringed with wooden galleries and is used as a place to relax, drink tea, coffee, or sherbet, and socialise before and after bathing.[21]: 160–161 In contrast with hammams in al-Andalus or the Maghreb, the warm room (ılıklık) was de-emphasised architecturally and was sometimes little more than a transition space between the cold and hot rooms.[28]: 27
The hot room (hararet or sıcaklık) was usually the focus of the richest architectural embellishments.
-
Interior of the Mahmut Pasha Hamam (now used for shops) in Istanbul, Turkey (1476)
-
Küçük Mustafa Paşa Hamam in Istanbul (c. 1477)[53]
-
Davud Pasha Hamam in Skopje, North Macedonia(late 15th century)
-
Renovated interior of the Haseki Hurrem Sultan Bathhouse in Istanbul (16th century)
-
Baths of the Sultan and the Queen Mother at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul (late 16th century)
Iran
In Iran a shared pool or basin of hot water is commonly present in the middle of the hot room where bathers could immerse themselves, a feature which was rare or absent in the hamams of other regions (except Egypt).[18][5][1] Iranian hammam architecture was also characterised by the polyhedral shape of its rooms (sometimes rectangular but often octagonal or hexagonal), which were covered by a dome with a central skylight. The Iranian hot room (garmkhaneh) was in some cases divided into several rooms: a large main one with a central pool (chal howz) and smaller ones for individual ablutions or which could be used as private rooms for special guests.[20]
-
Rooftop view of the domes of the Sultan Amir Ahmed Hamam in Kashan, Iran (16th century)
-
Frescoed/painted decoration in a hammam from the reign of Shah Abbas I in Mashhad, Iran (16th or 17th century)
-
Hammam of the Ganjali Khan Complex in Kerman, Iran (late 16th to early 17th century)
Regional examples of hammams
Jordan
Jordan contains several hammams from the Umayyad era (7th to 8th centuries), making them the oldest known examples of Islamic bathhouses. Many of these are attached to the so-called "
Morocco
The ruins of the oldest known Islamic hammam in Morocco, dating back to the late 8th century, can be found in Volubilis.[17] Many historic hammams have been preserved in cities such as Marrakesh[30] and especially Fes, partly because they continue to be used by locals.[2][17] Among the best known examples is the 14th-century Saffarin Hammam in Fes, which has been restored and rehabilitated.[2][55][56][17] Moroccan hammams were typically smaller than Roman or Byzantine baths. They are often close to mosques to facilitate the performance of ablutions. Because of their private nature, their entrances are often discreet and their façades are typically windowless. Vestiges of the Roman bathing style can be seen in the three-room layout, which was widespread during the Roman/Byzantine period.
It's sometimes difficult to identify hammams from the outside but the roof has a series of characteristic domes that indicate the different chambers.
Al-Andalus (Spain and Portugal)
Although the traditions of the hammams eventually disappeared in the centuries after the end of Muslim rule on the Iberian Peninsula in 1492, many historic hammam structures have nonetheless been preserved to varying degrees across many cities, especially in Spain. Many of them are now archeological sites or open to tourists as historical attractions. These hammams are partly distinguished from others by their larger and more monumental warm rooms (bayt al-wastani) and changing rooms (bayt al-maslaj), a feature also shared with some Moroccan hammams.[16][58]
An early example (partially destroyed now) were the 10th-century Caliphal Baths which were attached to the Umayyad royal palace of Cordoba (later turned into the Christian Alcazar) and later expanded by the Almohads (12th to early 13th centuries).[59] Other notable examples of preserved Andalusian baths include the Bañuelo of Granada, the Arab Baths of Ronda, the Arab Baths of Jaén, and the baths in the Alcazar of Jerez de la Frontera. The Alhambra of Granada also contains two preserved bathhouses: a small one near its main mosque, and a much more lavish one attached to the Comares Palace.[60][58][16] In 2020 a well-preserved 12th-century Almohad-period bathhouse, complete with painted geometric decoration, was discovered during renovations of a local tapas bar in Seville, near the Giralda tower.[61]
Syria
A legend claims that Damascus once had 365 hammams, one for each day of the year. For centuries, these hammams formed an integral part of community life and some 50 of those in Damascus survived until the 1950s. However, by 2012, as a result of modernisation and the installation of home bathrooms, fewer than twenty Damascene hammams were still working.[62]
According to many historians,
- Hammam al-Sultan, built in 1211 by Az-Zahir Ghazi
- Hammam al-Nahhasin, built during the 12th century near Khan al-Nahhaseen
- Hammam al-Bayadah, built in 1450 during the Mamluk era
- Emir of Aleppo Saif ad-Din Yalbugha al-Naseri[64]
- Hammam al-Jawhary, Gammam Azdemir, Hammam Bahram Pasha, Hammam Bab al-Ahmar and others
-
Hammam Yalbugha in Aleppo, Syria (1491)
-
Hammam al-Nahhasin in Aleppo, Syria, originally built in the 12th century
Egypt
As in neighbouring regions, bathhouses had existed in Egypt for centuries before the
Today, the cultural practice of visiting hammams has significantly receded in Egypt. Cairo contained an estimated 77 operational hammams at the beginning of the 19th century, but only 33 were operating in 1969 and only eight were still operating at the start of the 21st century, with many others abandoned or neglected.[69][31] Of the few still functioning hammams, many are also in precarious condition and scholars have indicated that they are likely to disappear or stop functioning in the near future.[70] A few hammams, mainly in the neighbourhoods of Historic Cairo, have been restored or earmarked for restoration as historic monuments, including the Sultan Inal Hammam, the monumental but ruined hammam of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad (behind the al-Mu'ayyad Mosque), the Hammam al-Gamaliyya (in the Gamaliya neighbourhood), the Hammam al-Sinaniya (in Bulaq), and the Hammam al-Sukariya (in Darb al-Ahmar).[70]
Turkey
Public baths were a feature of life in
After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Istanbul became a centre of Ottoman architectural patronage. The city's oldest hammams include the Tahtakale Hamam (built soon after 1453), the Mahmut Pasha Hamam (built in 1466 and part of the Mahmut Pasha Mosque complex), the Gedik Ahmet Pasha Hamam (built in 1475), the Bayezid II Hamam (built some time between 1500 and 1507), and the Küçük Mustafa Pasha Hamam (built before 1512 near the Gül Mosque).[21][28]
Several major hammams in the city were designed by the famous Ottoman architect
Turkey also has a number of hot springs which have been developed as public baths for centuries. The Eski Kaplıca ("Old Thermal Baths") of Bursa, built by Sultan Murad I (ruled 1360–1389),[83] and the nearby Yeni ("New") Kaplıca built by Rüstem Pasha in 1552,[81] are two of the most notable examples and are still used today. Several older hot-spring baths were also built by the Seljuks in the 13th century and the Akkoyunlu in the late 14th century, some of which are still operating today.[83]
Although far fewer in number than in the past, many Turkish hammams still operate today. With the growth in tourism, some have been restored or modernised recently with differing degrees of historical authenticity.[28][29][27] Other hammam buildings have ceased functioning as public baths but have been repurposed as markets or cultural venues, as for example the Tahtakale Hamam in Istanbul which contains shops and cafes, the Hoca Paşa Hamam in Istanbul which is used for performances by whirling dervishes, the Küçük Mustafa Paşa Hamamı in Istanbul which is used for art exhibitions, and the Orhan Bey Hamam in Bursa which is part of the Covered Bazaar.[27][28][84] In some cases hamam buildings have been turned into storage depots or factories, though this has usually led to neglect and damage to their historic fabric.[27]
Greece
Greece once had many historic hammams dating from the Ottoman period, from the late 14th century to the 18th century. Two of the oldest remaining examples are the Gazi Evrenos Hamam in Giannitsa, dating from 1392, and the Oruç Pasha Hammam in Didymoteicho, dating from 1398.[23] Most have been abandoned, demolished or survive in a state of decay, but recently a growing number have been restored and converted to serve new cultural functions as historic sites or exhibitions spaces. A 2004 study by Elena Kanetaki counted 60 remaining hammam buildings on Greek territory.[23]
In Thessaloniki, formerly a major Ottoman city, the Bey Hamam was built in 1444 by Sultan Murad II. It is a double bath, for men and women, with notable architectural decoration. The baths remained in use, called the Baths of Paradise, until 1968. They were restored by the Greek Archaeological Service and are now used as a cultural venue.[85][23][86][87] The late 16th-century Yeni Hamam has also been partially restored and now serves as a music venue.[23][88][86] The Pasha Hamam, also known as the Phoenix Baths, was built circa 1520 or 1529 during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent and operated until 1981.[23][89][90] It now houses archeological finds from construction work for the Thessaloniki metro.[citation needed]
Elsewhere in Greece, the Abid Efendi Hamam, built between 1430 and 1669 near the Roman Forum in Athens, restored in the 1990s and converted to the Center of Documentation in Body Embellishment.[23] In Rhodes, a double bath called the Yeni Hamam dates from the 16th century and was restored in 1992–1995. It is now one of only two Turkish baths still operating as a bathhouse in Greece.[23]
Cyprus
On the Turkish side of the Cypriot border in
North Macedonia
Some significant historic Ottoman hammams have also been preserved in
Bulgaria
The city of
Hungary
India and Pakistan
Public baths have ancient precedents in
In Pakistan, Shahi Hammam or the Royal Bathhouse of Lahore, located in the historic Walled City, is one of the best preserved examples of a Mughal-era hammam. It was built in 1634 by the Mughal governor of Lahore, Hakim Ilmuddin Ansari, during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan.[110][111]
-
The hammam of the Shahi Qila Palace in Burhanpur, India (17th century)
-
The 17th-century Shahi Hammam in Lahore, Pakistan, is elaborately decorated with Mughal-era frescoes.
Crimea (Ukraine)
In Bakhchisarai, by order of the Crimean Khan Sahib I Geray, the Sarı-Güzel hamam was built in 1532.[112][113][114]
Turkish baths in the Western world
By the mid 19th century,
During the following 150 years, over 800 Turkish baths opened in the country, including those built by municipal authorities as part of swimming-pool complexes, taking advantage of the fact that water-heating boilers were already on site.
Similar baths opened in other parts of the British Empire. Dr. John Le Gay Brereton, who had given medical advice to bathers in a Foreign Affairs Committee-owned Turkish bath in Bradford, travelled to Sydney, Australia, and opened a Turkish bath there on Spring Street in 1859, even before such baths had reached London.[116] Canada had one by 1869, and the first in New Zealand was opened in 1874.
Urquhart's influence was also felt outside the Empire when in 1861, Dr Charles H Shepard opened the first Turkish baths in the United States at 63 Columbia Street, Brooklyn Heights, New York City, most probably on 3 October 1863.[117] Before that, the United States, like many other places, had several Russian baths, one of the first being that opened in 1861 by M. Hlasko at his "natatorium" at 219 S. Broad Street, Philadelphia.[118] In Germany in 1877, Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden opened the Friedrichsbad Roman-Irish baths in Baden-Baden. This was also based on the Victorian Turkish bath, and is still open today.[119]
As of September 2020[update] there were just eleven Victorian or Victorian-style Turkish baths remaining open in Britain, including the baths in Harrogate,
Cultural representations of the hammam
Art
Within the Muslim world, hammams appeared in some artistic depictions such as Persian miniatures, including the work of Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād (or Bihzad).[4]
-
Bathhouse scene by Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād, 1495
-
Women's bath, illustration from Husein Fâzıl-i Enderuni's Zanan-Name, 18th century
In
-
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres: The Turkish Bath, 1862 (Louvre, Paris)
-
Le Hamam, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1870
-
Baigneuses, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, c. 1889
-
Après le bain, by Jean-Léon Gérôme
Movies
Turkish director Ferzan Özpetek's 1997 film Hamam told the story of a man who inherited a hammam in Istanbul from his aunt, restored it and found a new life for himself in the process.[124]
Literature
Visiting a hammam was very much a part of the Western tourist experience from the 18th century onwards and many travellers left accounts of what they had seen in the bathhouses. One such was the British diplomat's wife, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, who visited a hammam in Sofia in Bulgaria in 1717 and wrote about it in her Turkish Embassy Letters, first published in 1763.[125] In 1836 another British woman, the traveller and novelist, Julia Pardoe, left a description of taking part in the hammam ritual in Constantinople/Istanbul in her book The City of the Sultan and Domestic Manners of the Turks, published in 1838.[126] In 1814 another wife of a British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, Henrietta Liston, visited a hammam in Bursa and wrote about it in her belatedly published diary.[127] In her Romance of the Bosphorus, Dorina Clifton, a British woman who grew up in Constantinople/Istanbul, left a rare account of a visit to a local hammam in Kandilli, one of the Bosphorus villages, before the First World War.[128] Several more contemporary accounts of using hammams in Turkey appeared in Tales from the Expat Harem, published in 2005.[129]
See also
- Gellért Baths
- Hydrotherapy
- Jjimjilbang, the Korean equivalent
- Onsen and sentō, the Japanese equivalents
- Steam shower
- Sauna
References
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Bath". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Sibley, Magda. "The Historic Hammams of Damascus and Fez: Lessons of Sustainability and Future Developments". The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture.
- ^ a b c d e Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Sourdel-Thomine, J.; Louis, A. (2012). "Ḥammām". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ ISBN 9789042924390.
- ISBN 9783447020022.
- ^ Project, Living Arabic. "The Living Arabic Project – Classical Arabic and dialects". Lughatuna. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ^ "Definition of HAMMAM". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ISBN 978-88-8029-394-1.
- ^ Taylor, Isaac (1898). Names and Their Histories: A Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature. Rivingtons. p. 316.
- ^ "Definition of TURKISH BATH". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ISBN 9780367671457.
- ISBN 9789042924390.
- ISBN 9789004418721.
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 9782753555457.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Raftani, Kamal; Radoine, Hassan (2008). "The Architecture of the Hammams of Fez, Morocco". Archnet-IJAR. 2 (3): 56–68.
- ^ a b c d e "BATHHOUSES (ḥammām, garmāba)". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 2 October 2020.
- S2CID 146256016.
- ^ S2CID 144523991.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Kuban, Doğan (2010). Ottoman Architecture. Antique Collectors' Club.
- .
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Kanetaki, Eleni (2004). "The Still Existing Ottoman Hammams in Greek Territory" (PDF). Middle East Technical University Journal of the Faculty of Architecture. 21: 81–110.
- ^ a b Artan, Tülay (2011). "Forms and Forums of Expression". In Woodhead, Christine (ed.). The Ottoman World. pp. 386–387.
- ^ Hamams in Islamic tradition (cyberbohemia.com) Archived 14 August 2004 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Koch, Ebba (2002). Mughal Architecture: An Outline of Its History and Development (1526- 1858). Oxford University Press.
- ^ .
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Sumner-Boyd, Hilary; Freely, John (2010). Strolling Through Istanbul: The Classic Guide to the City (Revised ed.). Tauris Parke Paperbacks.
- ^ a b The Rough Guide to Istanbul. Rough Guides. 2015.
- ^ .
- ^ ISBN 9789774162435.
- ^ a b Erdoğan, Nevnihal; Alik, Belma; Temel Akarsu, Hikmet (2018). "The Ottoman-Turkish Hamams in Urban History and Culture in Balkan Countries". 14th International Conference in "Standardization, Prototypes, and Quality: A Means of Balkan Countries' Collaboration": 93–102.
- ^ Rahim, Habibeh (2001). "Understanding Islam". The Furrow. 52 (12): 670–674.
- S2CID 162260908.
- ^ Ghazali, Abu Hammid (1975). The Mysteries of Purity: Being a Translation with Notes of the Kitāb Asrār Al-ṭahārah of Al-Ghazzāli's Iḥyāʼ ʻulūm Al-dīn. Lahore: Muhammad Ashraf.
- ^ Ghazali, Abu Hammid (1975). The Mysteries of Purity: Being a Translation with Notes of the Kitāb Asrār Al-ṭahārah of Al-Ghazzāli's Iḥyāʼ ʻulūm Al-dīn. Lahore: Muhammad Ashraf. p. 51.
- ISBN 9781135030377.
- ^ a b Joseph, Suad; Afsaneh Najmabadi (2003). Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures. Leiden: Brill.
- ^ Nkrumah, Gamal (23 July 2009). "Tales from the Hammam". Al-Ahram Weekly.
- ^ (Yılmazkaya & Deniz 2005) discusses occasional licentious activity
- ISBN 1859643256, p. 161
- ^ Alexander Russell, The Natural History of Aleppo, 1756, 2nd edition, 1794, p. 134-5
- ^ Kilito, Abdelfettah; Patricia Geesey (1992). "Architecture and the Sacred: A Season in the Hamam". Research in African Literatures. 23 (2): 203–208.
- JSTOR 3346678.
- JSTOR 3346678.
- ^ ISBN 9781135030377.
- ISBN 978-0-226-32105-9.
- ^ Pasin, Burkay (2016). "A Critical Reading Of The Ottoman-Turkish Hammam As A Representational Space Of Sexuality". METU Journal of the Faculty of Architecture. 33 (2).
- S2CID 242117795.
- ^ The Guide of Turkish Baths Archived 26 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ "El Baño Andalusí (2 de 2) – Baños del Alcázar Califal | Visita Virtual". banosdelalcazarcalifal.cordoba.es. Retrieved 10 October 2020.
- ^ ISBN 9783902782212.
- ^ "About the monument | Kucuk Mustafa Pasa Hammam". kucukmustafapasahamami.com. Retrieved 16 October 2022.
- ^ M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Qusayr 'Amra". The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture. Oxford University Press.
- S2CID 111065262.
- ^ "Summary of the discussions – ECO-HAMMAM". Retrieved 13 September 2020.
- ^ a b Sibley, Magda; Fodil Fadli (2009). "Hammams in North Africa: An Architectural Study of Sustainability Concepts in a Historical Traditional Building". 26th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture.
- ^ a b Marçais, Georges (1954). L'architecture musulmane d'Occident. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 215–216, 315–316.
- ^ "Arab Baths of the Caliphal Alcázar of Córdoba – "Caliphal Baths"". Arte en Córdoba. 10 July 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
- ISBN 3822896322.
- ^ "Islamic 12th-century bathhouse uncovered in Seville tapas bar". The Guardian. 18 February 2021. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
- ^ Hammaming in the Sham: A Journey through the Turkish Baths of Damascus, Aleppo and Beyond, Richard Boggs, Garnet Publishing Ltd.
- ^ Alepo hammams
- ISBN 978-1-86450-333-3.
Hammam yalbougha.
- ^ "Ancient Baths in Egypt". karanisbath. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ISBN 9781617977428.
- ^ Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. 2007. Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.
- ^ a b Williams, Caroline (2018). Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide (7th ed.). Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press.
- S2CID 113006369.
- ^ S2CID 113006369.
- ^ basin. "Eski Aynalı Çarşı (Orhan Hamamı)". Bursa.com.tr | Tüm Zamanların Güzel Şehri (in Turkish). Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ "TİMURTAŞ (DEMİRTAŞ) PAŞA HAMAMI". Kültür Portalı. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ Mordtmann, J.H.; Fehérvári, G. (2012). "Iznīḳ". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ "Eski Hamam, Merzifon". kulturenvanteri.com. 7 April 2020. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ merzifonpusula.com. "ÇELEBİ SULTAN MEHMED HAMAMI". Pusula Gazetesi – Günlük Siyasi Gazete Merzifon – Amasya – Suluova – Taşova – Hamamözü – Göynücek Haberleri (in Turkish). Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ "MAHKEME (İBRAHİM PAŞA) HAMAMI". Kültür Portalı. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
- ^ "GAZİ MİHAL BEY HAMAMI". Kültür Portalı. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ "EMİR SULTAN HAMAMI". Kültür Portalı. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ "BEYLERBEYİ HAMAMI". Kültür Portalı. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ "Hamamlar -". ankara.ktb.gov.tr. Retrieved 14 October 2020.
- ^ ISBN 9781845645069.
- ^ "Sokollu Mehmet Pasha Bath in Edirne | Turkish Archaeological News". turkisharchaeonews.net. 27 September 2017. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
- ^ a b Orhonlu, Cengiz (2012). "Ḳapli̊d̲j̲a". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill.
- ^ "Eski Aynalı Çarşı | Bursa, Turkey Attractions". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
- ISBN 9780307427571.
- ^ ISBN 9780241216798.
- ^ "Bey Hammam | Thessaloniki, Greece Attractions". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ "Yeni Hammam | Thessaloniki, Greece Attractions". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ Zacharopoulou, Georgia (2015). "Structural metric models of public ottoman baths in Thessaloniki, Greece". 12th International Conference on "Standardization, Prototypes and Quality: A Means of Balkan Countries' Collaboration": 305–313.
- ^ Çi̇nçi̇n, Seda Kaplan; Çirpi, Meltem Ezel; Erdoğan, Nevnihal (2016). "Ottoman Monumental Buildings in Thessaloniki Architectural Heritage". JOEEP: Journal of Emerging Economies and Policy. 1 (1): 73–84.
- ^ ISBN 9783447058995.
- .
- ISBN 9780241291580.
- ^ "The Best in Heritage". presentations.thebestinheritage.com. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ^ "Daut Pasha Hamam – Nationalgallery.mk". Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ "Cifte Hammam – Nationalgallery.mk". Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ "FİLİBE - TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi". TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi (in Turkish). Retrieved 7 March 2022.
- ^ a b "The baths in ancient Plovdiv". lostinplovdiv.com. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
- ^ "A local's guide to Plovdiv, Bulgaria: 10 top tips". The Guardian. 29 July 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2022.
- ISBN 9780195309911.
- ^ "A guide to Budapest's thermal baths". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-78701-065-9.
- ^ "Great Bath | Definition, Description, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ "Turkish bath centre defunct at Nizamia general hospital". siasat.com. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
- ^ "Where are those Turkish baths?". The Times of India. 11 June 2004. Archived from the original on 2 March 2013. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
- ^ "Centre keen on hammam". The Times of India. 27 November 2011. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
- ^ "Hyderabad Attractions". The New York Times. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
- ^ Syed Zillur Rahman, Hammam – Past and Present, Newsletter of Ibn Sina Academy 2012, Volume 12 No 1: 10–16
- ^ Gianani, Kareena (22 June 2016). "Bhopal's 300-Year-Old Hidden Hammam". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
- ^ orientalarchitecture.com. "Shahi Hammam Bathhouse, Lahore, Pakistan". Asian Architecture. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ "A Mughal bathhouse renewed: Shahi Hammam, Lahore Walled City, Pakistan | Aga Khan Development Network". www.akdn.org. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
- ^ admin. "Бахчисарайский историко-культурный и археологический музей-заповедник – Баня Сары-Гузель" (in Russian). Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ Память Крыма. Выпуск 67. Хансарай: Баня Сары-Гузель, retrieved 12 March 2024
- ^ "Хансарай. Часть 4: Баня Сары-Гузель". avdet.org (in Russian). 15 August 2023. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
- ^ Shifrin, Malcolm (3 October 2008), "St Ann's Hydropathic Establishment, Blarney, Co. Cork", Victorian Turkish Baths: Their origin, development, and gradual decline, retrieved 12 December 2009
- ^ Shifrin, Malcolm (2015). Victorian Turkish Baths. London: Historic England. pp. 51–2.
- The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 3 October 1863
- ^ To Philadelphians on behalf of the Natatorium & Physical Institute. 1860. p. 11. Retrieved 4 December 2012.
- ^ Roman-Irish baths, Baden-Baden. Retrieved 16 December 2017
- ^ "Victorian-style Turkish baths still open in the UK". Victorianturkishbath.org. Retrieved 29 September 2020.
- ^ Victorian bath house
- ^ Ashton Old Baths. Retrieved 16 December 2017
- JSTOR 3346678.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
- ISBN 1853816795.
- ^ Pardoe, Julia (1838). The City of the Sultan and Domestic Manners of the Turks (2nd ed.). London: Henry Colburn.
- ISBN 9781474467360.
- ^ Neave, Dorina Lady (1949). Romance of the Bosphorus (1st ed.). London: Hutchinson. pp. 37–8.
- ISBN 9752933726.
Primary bibliography
- Allsop, Robert Owen (1890), The Turkish bath: its design and construction, Spon (Deals only with the Victorian Turkish bath)
- Cosgrove, J. J. (2001) [1913], Design of the Turkish bath, Books for Business, ISBN 978-0-89499-078-6(Deals only with the Victorian Turkish bath)
- Gazali, Münif Fehim (2001), Book of Shehzade, Dönence, ISBN 978-975-7054-17-7
- Shifrin, Malcolm (2015), Victorian Turkish baths, Swindon: Historic England, ISBN 978-1-84802-230-0
- Toledano, Ehud R. (2003), State and Society in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Egypt, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-53453-6
- Yılmazkaya, Orhan; Deniz, Ogurlu (2005), A Light onto a Tradition and Culture: Turkish baths: a Guide to the Historic Turkish Baths of Istanbul (2 ed.), Çitlembik, ISBN 978-975-6663-80-6
External links
- Pole to Pole) uploaded by BBC Worldwide to YouTube
- The Turkish Bath Experience
- Victorian Turkish baths: their origin, development, & gradual decline