Tuskegee Airmen
Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial) | |
---|---|
619th Bombardment Squadron) | |
Nickname(s) | Red Tails Red-Tail Angels |
Motto(s) | Spit Fire |
Engagements | World War II |
The Tuskegee Airmen
All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at Griel Field, Kennedy Field,
The
The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter-bomber aircraft. The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with Bell P-39 Airacobras (March 1944), later with Republic P-47 Thunderbolts (June–July 1944) and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the North American P-51 Mustang (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s red, the nickname "Red Tails" was coined. The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P-51s as well as a red empennage; the P-51B, C and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail surfaces.
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces. During World War II, black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the Jim Crow laws[N 1] and the American military was racially segregated, as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination, both within and outside of the army.
History
Origins
Background
Before the Tuskegee Airmen, no African-American had been a U.S. military
The racially motivated rejections of World War I African-American recruits sparked more than two decades of advocacy by African-Americans who wished to enlist and train as military aviators. The effort was led by such prominent
War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African-Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers, as had been done previously with the
Because of the restrictive nature of selection policies, the situation did not seem promising for African-Americans, since in 1940 the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African-American pilots in the nation.[11] The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified, even under the restrictive requirements. Many of the applicants had already participated in the Civilian Pilot Training Program, unveiled in late December 1938 (CPTP). Tuskegee University had participated since 1939.[12]
Testing
The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the
Airman
They made the standards so high, we actually became an elite group. We were screened and super-screened. We were unquestionably the brightest and most physically fit young blacks in the country. We were super-better because of the irrational laws of Jim Crow. You can't bring that many intelligent young people together and train 'em as fighting men and expect them to supinely roll over when you try to fuck over 'em, right? (Laughs.)[13]
First Lady's flight
The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when
The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee, even though the program was already five months old. Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the
Formation
On 22 March 1941, the
A cadre of 14 black non-commissioned officers from the 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments were sent to Chanute Field to help in the administration and supervision of the trainees. A white officer, Army Captain Harold R. Maddux, was assigned as the first commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron.[19][20]
A group of 271 enlisted men began training in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute Field in March 1941 until they were transferred to bases in Alabama in July 1941.[21] The skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee Fields in Alabama.[22][23]
While the enlisted men were in training, five black youths were admitted to the Officers Training School (OTS) at Chanute Field as aviation cadets. Specifically, Elmer D. Jones, Dudley Stevenson, and James Johnson of Washington, DC; Nelson Brooks of Illinois, and William R. Thompson of Pittsburgh, PA successfully completed OTS and were commissioned as the first Black Army Air Corps Officers.[19]
In June 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was transferred to Tuskegee, Alabama, and remained the only black flying unit in the country, but did not yet have pilots.
By mid-1942, over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee, even though only two squadrons were training there.[26]
Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already-existing airfields reserved for training white pilots, such as Maxwell Field, only 40 miles (64 km) distant.[27] African-American contractor McKissack and McKissack, Inc. was in charge of the contract. The company's 2,000 workmen, the Alabama Works Progress Administration, and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months. The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057.[28] The airmen were placed under the command of Captain Benjamin O. Davis Jr., one of only two black line officers then serving.[29]
During training, Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison. Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee. However, he was transferred on 12 January 1942, reputedly because of his insistence that his African-American sentries and
His successor, Colonel Frederick Kimble, then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield.[32] Contrary to new Army regulations, Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama, a policy that was resented by the airmen.[27] Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble. His replacement had been the director of training at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major Noel F. Parrish.[33] Counter to the prevalent racism of the day, Parrish was fair and open-minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.[34][35]
The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations. Typical of the process was the development of separate African-American flight surgeons to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.[36] Before the development of this unit, no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black.
Training of African-American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses, until 1943, when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at
The accumulation of washed-out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to "dump" African-American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee. A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee's housing and culinary departments.[37]
Trained officers were also left idle as the plan to shift African-American officers into command slots stalled, and white officers not only continued to hold command but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post. One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African-American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces, General
Combat assignment
The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943. It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April, bound for North Africa, where it joined the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander, Colonel
The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a
By the end of February 1944, the all-black
Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on 1 May 1944, joined them on 6 June at
Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. The Allies called these airmen "Red Tails" or "Red-Tail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit's aircraft.[45]
A B-25 bomb group, the 477th Bombardment Group, was forming in the U.S. but was not able to complete its training in time to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.[45]
Active air units
The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group. The dive-bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. were considered to be highly successful.[46][47]
In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron. It earned three
The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day.
Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Their missions took them over Italy and enemy-occupied parts of central and southern Europe. Their operational aircraft were, in succession: Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, Bell P-39 Airacobra, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and North American P-51 Mustang fighter aircraft.[46]
Tuskegee Airmen bomber units
Formation
With African-American fighter pilots being trained successfully, the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the NAACP and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit. There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African-American pilots in training at one time,[50] or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training,[51] represented the service potential of 13 million African-Americans.[N 4]
On 13 May 1943, the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the 477th Bombardment Group, an all-white group. The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943, only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943.[37][52][53][54] By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets on base had surged to 286, with few of them working. In January 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated—an all-Black group.[52][53][54] At the time, the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months.[55]
The 477th eventually contained four medium bomber squadrons. Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men, the unit operated 60 North American B-25 Mitchell bombers.[N 5] The 477th went on to encompass three more bomber squadrons–the 617th Bombardment Squadron, the 618th Bombardment Squadron, and the 619th Bombardment Squadron.[57] The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944.[58]
The home field for the 477th was
Command difficulties
The new group's first commanding officer was Colonel
Subsequently, Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African-Americans, although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen.
Another irritant was a professional one for African-American officers. They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons; these officers stayed just long enough to be "promotable" before transferring out at their new rank. This seemed to take about four months. In an extreme example, 22-year-old Robert Mattern was promoted to captain, transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later, and left a month later as a major. He was replaced by another white officer. Meanwhile, no Tuskegee Airmen held command.[70]
On 15 March 1945,
Colonel Selway turned the noncommissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers' club. He then classified all white personnel as cadre and all African-Americans as trainees. One officers' club became the cadre's club. The old
Off base was no better; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African-Americans. A local laundry would not wash their clothes and yet willingly laundered those of captured German soldiers.[71]
In early April 1945, the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field; its African-American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre, not trainees. On 5 April, officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites-only officer's club. Selway had been tipped off by a phone call and had the assistant
In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny, the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945; it was redesignated the 477th Composite Group as a result. On 1 July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group's command; he was replaced by Colonel
War accomplishments
In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 to 1946. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their lives.[77] The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents, 12 killed in training and non-combat missions[78] and 32 captured as prisoners of war.[79][80]
The Tuskegee Airmen were credited by higher commands with the following accomplishments:
- 1578 combat missions,[81] 1267 for the Twelfth Air Force; 311 for the Fifteenth Air Force[82]
- 179 bomber escort missions,[49] with a good record of protection,[79] losing bombers on only seven missions and a total of only 27, compared to an average of 46 among other 15th Air Force P-51 groups[83]
- 112 enemy aircraft destroyed in the air, another 150 on the ground[49] and 148 damaged. This included three Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighters shot down
- 950 rail cars, trucks and other motor vehicles destroyed (over 600 rail cars[49])
- One torpedo boat put out of action.
- 40 boats and barges destroyed[49]
Awards and decorations included:
- Three Distinguished Unit Citations
- 99th Pursuit Squadron: 30 May – 11 June 1943, for actions over Sicily[citation needed][86]
- 99th Fighter Squadron: 12–14 May 1944: for successful airstrikes against Monte Cassino, Italy. The first two Distinguished Unit Citations received by the 99th Fighter Squadron were awarded to the groups to which the squadron was attached. At the time, when a group received the honor, it was shared with the squadrons that were assigned or attached to the group.[citation needed]
- 332nd Fighter Group (and its 99th, 100th, and 301st Fighter Squadrons): 24 March 1945: for a bomber escort mission to Berlin, during which pilots of the 100th FS shot down three enemy Me 262 jets. The 302nd Fighter Squadron did not receive this award as it had been disbanded on 6 March 1945.[citation needed]
- At least one Silver Star[citation needed]
- 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses to 95 Airmen; Captain William A. Campbell was awarded two.[87][88]
- 14 Bronze Stars[citation needed]
- 744 Air Medals[citation needed]
- At least 60 Purple Hearts[89]
Controversy over escort record
For decades, the Tuskegee Airmen were popularly believed to have never lost a bomber under escort. This belief derived most directly to an article, "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss", published by the
This statement was repeated for many years, and not publicly challenged, partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war. In 2004, William Holton, who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, conducted research into wartime action reports.[92] Alan Gropman, a professor at the National Defense University, disputed the initial refutations of the no-loss myth and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters.[92]
Daniel Haulman of the Air Force Historical Research Agency (AFHRA) reassessed the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007. He documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen, citing after-mission reports filed by the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups, records of missing air crew, and witness testimony.[90]
Haulman wrote a subsequent article, "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth", published in the
Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force, the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven, and the total number of bombers lost was 27. By comparison, the average number of bombers lost by the other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46.[83]
In 2022, Dr. Haulman published a comprehensive study that established that the record of the 322d differed substantially from that of the three other P-51
The historical record shows several examples of the fighter group's losses. A mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A [target area] after attack by E/A [enemy aircraft]. No chutes seen to open." The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944, noted that he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."[95]
William H. Holloman was reported by the Times as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost. Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc., a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters, who also taught Black Studies at the University of Washington and chaired the Airmen's history committee.[92] According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the Chicago Defender article was published.[90] The mission reports, however, do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six-month period between September 1944 and March 1945, albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier.[96]
Postwar
Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters, Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight racism. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group, but other units continued to harass these airmen.[97]
In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada. The competition included shooting aerial and ground targets and dropping bombs on targets. Flying the long-range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt (built for the long-range escort mission in the
After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President Harry S. Truman with Executive Order 9981, the veteran Tuskegee Airmen found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed United States Air Force. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned Columbia Air Center in Maryland.[101] On 11 May 1949, Air Force Letter 35.3 mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all-white units according to qualifications.[102]
Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation. Edward A. Gibbs, a civilian flight instructor who helped launch in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee,[103] later became the founder of Negro Airmen International, an association joined by many airmen. USAF General Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. (then Lt.) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and later a fighter pilot in Europe. In 1975, he became the first African-American to reach the rank of four-star general.[104] Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron Marion Rodgers went on to work in communications for NORAD and as a program developer for the Apollo 13 project.[105]
In 2005, seven Tuskegee Airmen, including Lieutenant Colonel
As of 2008[update], no one knew how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel were still alive.[107] In August 2019, 14 documented original surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participated at the annual Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.[108][109]
Willie Rogers, one of the last surviving members of the original Tuskegee Airmen, died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in St. Petersburg, Florida, following a stroke. Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels. He was wounded in action, shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers during a mission in Italy in January 1943.[110] In 2007, President George W. Bush awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 300 surviving Tuskegee Airmen, but Rogers was not present. He was given a medal in 2013 after he revealed his previously undisclosed involvement. His pastor, Rev. Irby, said Rogers was a "passionate oral historian."
Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson, 24, had gone missing while flying a
In 2019, Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend, one of 12 remaining Tuskegee Airmen at the time, died on 21 June in Long Beach at the age of 99.[113] He had flown 142 combat missions in World War II. A public viewing and memorial was held at the Palm Springs Air Museum on 6 July.[114] He had spoken about his experiences in many different events before to his death, such as in John Murdy Elementary School's "The Gratitude Project" in Garden Grove.[115]
On January 16, 2022, Brigadier General
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Red Tails continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen
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The Congressional Gold Medal was collectively presented to approximately 300 Tuskegee Airmen or their widows, at the U.S. Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C. by President George W. Bush on March 29, 2007.
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Brigadier General Charles McGee being honored by President Donald Trump at the 2020 State of the Union Address, with his great-grandson Iain Lanphier to the left and Second Lady Karen Pence to the right
Legacy and honors
On 29 March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a Congressional Gold Medal[117] at a ceremony in the U.S. Capitol rotunda.[118] The medal is currently on display at the Smithsonian Institution.[90] The airfield where the airmen trained is now the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site.[119]
Thurgood Marshall, the future Supreme Court justice, got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so-called "Tuskegee experiment" by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews. The aim was to send pilots—many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group—back to the States for training on B-25 bombers. While in Indiana, some of the African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers' club. Marshall, then a young lawyer, represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation. The men were soon released (although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined).[120]
Robert W. Williams Jr., a navigator/bombardier in the 477th Bombardment Group, became a judge in the First Judicial District, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In 1979, he was elected to the Commonwealth Court, an appellate court, and the first African American to serve on that court. In 1985, he resigned from the court to run for the District Attorney of Philadelphia County. He was the first African American to successfully become a city-wide candidate for that office.[121] On 3 July 2023, Williams reached the age of 100, making him one of the last Tuskegee Airmen alive.[122]
Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business. Eugene Winslow founded Afro-Am Publishing in Chicago, Illinois, which published Great Negroes Past and Present in 1963.[123]
Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee, joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943. After the war ended, James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam. In 1969, James was put in command of Wheelus Air Base outside of Tripoli.[120]
Four Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals. For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi's troops, James was appointed a brigadier general by President Nixon. He was not the only Tuskegee graduate to make flag rank. James followed in the footsteps of Benjamin O. Davis Jr., the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Another Tuskegee aviator, Lucius Theus, retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36-year career in the Air Force to improving the military's bureaucracy, helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members.[120] In 2019, at 100 years old, Colonel Charles McGee was promoted to honorary Brigadier General.[124]
Coleman Young served in the 477th Medium-Bomber Group of the as a second lieutenant, bombardier, and navigator. As a lieutenant in the 477th, Young played a role in the Freeman Field Mutiny in 1945. Young later was elected mayor of Detroit, MI and served from 1974 to 1994. Young was the first African-American mayor of Detroit.
In 2006, California Congressman
The
The Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh presented an award to several Western Pennsylvania Tuskegee veterans, as well as suburban Sewickley, Pennsylvania dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality.[127] An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A.[128]
On 9 December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the inauguration of Barack Obama, the first African-American elected as president. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of Upper Marlboro, Maryland, a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on 4 Nov.. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."[129][130] More than 180 airmen attended 20 January 2009 inauguration.[131]
In July 2009, 15-year-old Kimberly Anyadike became the youngest female African-American pilot to complete a transcontinental flight across the United States. She cited the Tuskegee Airmen as one of her biggest inspirations, and was accompanied on her trip by 87-year-old former Tuskegee Airman Levi Thornhill.[132]
The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at
In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National Guard opened a jointly operated dining hall. They dedicated the new dining facility called the "Red Tail Dining Facility" to the Tuskegee Airmen. The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of
In 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.[133]
In January 2012, MTA Regional Bus Operations officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the Tuskegee Airmen Depot. In 2012, George Lucas produced Red Tails, a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen.[134]
In 2012, Aldine Independent School District in Harris County, Texas named Benjamin O. Davis High School in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr.[135]
On 16 September 2019, the USAF officially named the winning
On 2 February 2020, McGee brought out the commemorative coin for the Super Bowl coin flip.[124][138]
In 2021, the United States Mint issued an America the Beautiful quarter commemorating the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site. The coin depicts a Tuskegee Airman suiting up with two P-51 Mustangs flying overhead and the motto "They fought two wars".[139]
On 25 April 2021,
A commemoration of the 75th anniversary of the official desegregation of the US military during which several Tuskegee Airmen were present was held on 26 July 2023 at Joint Base Andrews in Maryland.[141][142] During the event, a PT-17 Stearman was officially inducted to the National Museum of the Air Force, located at Wright-Patterson AFB in Ohio.[143][144] Most Tuskegee pilots were originally trained on the Stearman-class aircraft.[141][142]
In 2023, the Pentagon identified the remains of 2nd Lt. Fred L. Brewer Jr of the 100th Fighter Squadron, 332nd Fighter Group, whose P-51C Mustang crashed during a bomber escort mission over Regensburg Germany in October 1944. After Lt. Brewer's plane crashed he was declared missing in action. In July 2023, the Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency (DPAA) exhumed a set of previously unidentified remains and positively identified them through lab tests as belonging to Brewer. He was laid to rest with military honors at Salisbury National Cemetery in his home state of North Carolina.[145][146][147]
On March 28, 2024, President Joseph Biden issued a national letter to recognize Tuskegee Airmen Commemoration Day. In an effort led by Congresswoman Lisa Blunt Rochester (DE), and Congresswoman Eleanor Holmes Norton (DC) and Vanessa Butler in partnership with the East Coast Chapter Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated and Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, Tuskegee Airmen Commemoration Day is typically celebrated on the 4th Thursday in March annually.
Artistic depictions
- The Legend of the Red Tails, by artist Ray Simon[148][149] is displayed in the Tuskegee Airmen National Historical Museum.[citation needed]
- Red Tails Escorting the B17s, a watercolor by Pritzker Military Museum & Library.[150]
- There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[151]
- Tuskegee Airmen, a watercolor mural by Andrew J. Woodstock has been displayed at the Air Zoo Aerospace and Aviation Museum in Portage, Michigan.[152]
- Richmond, Kentucky's seven Tuskegee Airmen who served during World War II are honored with an artist's rendering of airman Frank D. Walker at the Madison County Public Library.[153]
In popular culture
- The Homestead Grays (1978), a wartime novel by James Wylie, loosely based on the combat exploits of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group.[citation needed]
- Wings for This Man (1945), a propaganda short about the Tuskegee Airmen, was produced by the First Motion Picture Unit of the Army Air Forces. The film was narrated by Ronald Reagan.
- "Graveyard", an episode of
- Cuba Gooding, Jr, and John Lithgow was produced and aired by HBO.
- "The Tuskegee Airmen", a History Channelon 6 December 2007.
- The Tuskegee Airmen (1997) are represented in the G.I. Joe action figure series.[155]
- The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany (2001), a book by Stephen Ambrose, describes the Tuskegee Airmen in a tribute to their achievements.[156]
- Freeman Field Mutiny", the struggle of 101 African-American officers arrested for entering a white officer's club.[157]
- Red Tail Reborn is a documentary film about the restoration of an aircraft that was flown by the Tuskegee Airmen and its use as a flying memorial to them.
- Red Tails is a film about the Tuskegee Airmen produced by Lucasfilm and released in January 2012. The film was written by John Ridley and Aaron McGruder, and directed by Anthony Hemingway.
- Night at the Museum: Battle of the Smithsonian (2009) features the Tuskegee Airmen. One of the Airmen, played by Keith Powell, narrates the group's activities in a stentorian voice ("The Tuskegee Airmen are on the march once again!"). Another one of the Airmen (Craig Robinson) says to Amelia Earhart (Amy Adams), "A lot of people didn't think we could fly, either ... thanks for clearing the runway for us."[citation needed]
- Black Angels Over Tuskegee (2015), an Off-Broadway play about the Airmen written and directed by Layon Gray, currently performs in New York City.[citation needed]
- The story of one such airman is retold in the 1949 radio drama "Last Letter Home" presented by Destination Freedom.[158]
- Masters of the Air (2023) is a nine-episode mini-series featuring the Tuskegee Airmen on Apple TV and produced by Gary Goetzman, Tom Hanks, and Steven Spielberg.[159]
Squadron images
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Patch of the99th Fighter Squadron
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Patch of the 100th Fighter Squadron
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Patch of the 301st Fighter Squadron
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Patch of the 302d Fighter Squadron
See also
- 92nd Infantry Division
- 93rd Infantry Division
- 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion "Triple Nickle"
- 761st Tank Battalion
- Bessie Coleman – first African-American civil aviator
- Fly (2009 play about the Tuskegee Airmen)
- List of African-American Medal of Honor recipients
- List of Tuskegee Airmen
- List of Tuskegee Airmen Cadet Pilot Graduation Classes, 1942–1946, listing graduating Cadet Pilots by Class, Year and Class Type
- Military history of African-Americans
- Racial discrimination against African-Americans in the U.S. Military
- Red Ball Express
- Strategic bombing during World War II
- Port Chicago disaster
- Walterboro Army Airfield training site and memorial
- Willa Brown
Explanatory notes
- ^ U.S. state and local laws enacted between 1876 and 1965 that mandated de jure racial segregation in all public activities were collectively known as the "Jim Crow laws"; the name derivation from a contemporary pejorative for Black Americans.[6]
- ^ "Pursuit" being the U.S. term for "fighter" to May 1942.
- ^ It may have been a lawsuit from a rejected candidate, that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants. Yancey Williams, an African American otherwise qualified for military pilot's training, filed suit in the District Court in Washington, DC for admittance to training. He was backed by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
- ^ The physical requirements that made it possible to fit in a fighter's cockpit with a height less than 70 inches, weight under 170 pounds, precluded many larger African-American men from eligibility.[50]
- ^ Each B-25 bomber cost $175,000. The overall cost of the entire group was estimated at $20,000,000.[56]
- Saint Clair River. His aircraft was discovered by divers 70 years to the day after the accident.[59] Per the Alcona County Review:"The first African American pilots training by the United States Army Air Corps earned their wings at Tuskegee Army Airfield in Alabama during World War II. Beginning in the spring of1943, fighter pilots from Tuskegee received advanced training in Michigan. "The relative safety of Midwestern America, along with weather in geographical conditions that approximated what aviators could expect to encounter in Europe, encouraged the military to use airfields at Selfridge northeast of Detroit, and at Oscoda on the shores of Lake Huron."[59]
- ^ Statistics for the 332nd Group include escort missions flown with P-47s.
References
Citations
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{{cite web}}
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'The name Red Hawk honors the legacy of Tuskegee Airmen and pays homage to their signature red-tailed aircraft from World War II,' Donovan said. 'The name is also a tribute to the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, an American fighter aircraft that first flew in 1938 and was flown by the 99th Fighter Squadron, the U.S. Army Air Forces' first African American fighter squadron.'
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'Tuskegee Airman Charles McGee, 100, brought out the commemorative coin for the Super Bowl coin flip and handed it to NFL referee Bill Vinovich.'
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{{cite web}}
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General and cited references
- ISBN 0743203399.
- Benton, Jeffrey C. (1999). They Served Here: Thirty-Three Maxwell Men. Maxwell AFB, Montgomery ISBN 978-1585660742.
- Berry, Ben. Tuskegee Airmen: To the Moon, Mars and Beyond (Secrets Revealed). CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011; OCLC 827831542
- Broadnax, Samuel L. Blue Skies, Black Wings: African-American Pioneers of Aviation. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007; ISBN 0275991954.
- Bucholtz, Chris and Jim Laurier. 332nd Fighter Group – Tuskegee Airmen. Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2007; ISBN 1846030447.
- Caldwell, Donald L.; ISBN 978-1853677120.
- Caver, Joseph, Jerome Ennels, and Daniel Haulman. The Tuskegee Airmen: An Illustrated History, 1939–1949. Montgomery, Alabama: New South Books, 2011; ISBN 978-1588382443.
- Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project", Flypast No. 248, March 2002.
- Francis, Charles E.; Caso, Adolph (1997). The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation. Boston: Branden Books. ISBN 0828320292.
- Gubert, Betty Kaplan; Sawyer, Miriam; Fannine, Caroline M. (2002). Distinguished African-Americans in Aviation and Space Science. Westport ISBN 978-1573562461.
- Haulman, Daniel L. "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth", The Alabama Review, Vol. 64, No. 1, January 2011.
- Haulman, Daniel L. (2012). Eleven Myths About the Tuskegee Airmen. Montgomery ISBN 978-1603061476.
- Haulman, Daniel L. (24 July 2013). "Misconceptions About the Tuskegee Airmen" (PDF). Air Force Historical Research Agency (USAF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
- Haulman, Daniel L. (26 February 2016). "Tuskegee Airmen Chronology" (PDF). Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air Force Historical Research Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
- Hill, Ezra M. Sr. The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope, 2006.
- Holway, John B. Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997; ISBN 1881325210.
- Homan, Lynn M.; Reilly, Thomas (2001). Black Knights: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen. Gretna ISBN 978-1565548282.
- Leuthner, Stuart and Olivier Jensen. High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989; ISBN 0874746507.
- Lloyd, Craig (2000). Eugene Bullard, Black Expatriate in Jazz-Age Paris. Athens ISBN 978-0820321929.
- McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996; ISBN 0802782922.
- Moye, J. Todd (2010). Freedom Flyers: The Tuskeegee Airmen of World War II. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195386554.
- Percy, William A. "Jim Crow and Uncle Sam: The Tuskegee Flying Units and the U.S. Army Air Forces in Europe during World War II", The Journal of Military History, 67, July 2003.
- Ross, Robert A. Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980; ISBN 0917612000.
- Sandler, Stanley. Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992; ISBN 1560981547.
- Tillman, Barrett (2012). "Tales of the Red Tails; Inside the Tuskegee Legend: The men, the machines, the missions". Flight Journal (February 2012).
- Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." Flypast No, 248, March 2002.
- Tucker, Phillip Thomas. Father of the Tuskegee airmen, John C. Robinson. Washington, DC: Potomac Books, Inc., 2012; OCLC 752678328
- Woodward, C. Vann; McFeely, William S. (2001). The Strange Career of Jim Crow. New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195146905.
External links
- Tuskegee Airmen at Tuskegee University
- Tuskegee Airmen Museum
- Double V: Civil Rights Struggle of the Tuskegee Airmen, an illustrated history book of the "Red Tails" by veteran Tuskegee Airmen (Lawrence P. Scott, William M. Womack) from Michigan, with photos from personal collections.[permanent dead link]
- Images of Tuskegee airmen, photos, paintings etc.
- "Red-Tail Angels": The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. ISBN 0802782922
- The Tuskegee Airmen (1995)
- Funeral Program for Tuskegee Airman Cassius Harris Archived 21 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine
- African American Funeral Programs from the East Central Georgia Regional Library Archived 13 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- The Tuskegee Airmen at the 2012 BET Honors Awards
- Tuskegee Airmen, Inc. – Official Web Site
- The Red Tail Project
- African Americans in the U.S. Army
- The Negro Pilot Training Program
- "Tuskegee Airmen: Brett Gadsden Interviews J. Todd Moye", Southern Spaces 30 September 2010.
- Interview with historian Todd Moye regarding the Tuskegee Airmen on "New Books in History"
- Contemporary newsreel about "Negro Pilots" – YouTube
- The short film "Henry Browne, Farmer (1942)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- The short film "Negro Pilots (1943)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- The short film "The Negro Soldier (1943)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- The short film "Tuskegee Airman Tribute (1990)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- The short film "African Americans in World War II: Legacy of Patriotism and Valor (1997)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
- Tuskegee Airmen collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Official Tuskegee Airmen painting created with the Tuskegee Airmen Association
- Photographs and information about the Tuskegee Airmen from World Digital Library
- Interview with three Tuskegee Airmen: Robert Martin, Dr. Quentin P. Smith, and Shelby Westbrook at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library in October 2008
- Citizen Soldier episode on Tuskegee Airmen recorded at the Pritzker Military Museum & Library on 12 September 2013
- Tuskegee Airmen Collections University of California, Riverside
- "Airmen and Adversity" WTVI, 1998-02-06, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, American Archive of Public Broadcasting
- U.S. Army Air Forces First Motion Picture Unit. Wings for This Man (1945) Tuskegee Airmen Documentary Video via YouTube. See Wings for This Man The short film "Wings for This Man (1945)" is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.