Types of nationalism

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Among

ideological
lines. These self-definitions of the nation are used to classify types of nationalism, but such categories are not mutually exclusive and many nationalist movements combine some or all of these elements to varying degrees. Nationalist movements can also be classified by other criteria, such as scale and location.

Some political theorists, like

Umut Özkirimli, make the case that any distinction between forms of nationalism is false.[1] In all forms of nationalism, the populations believe that they share some kind of common culture.[2] Arguably, all types of nationalism merely refer to different ways academics throughout the years have tried to define nationalism.[citation needed] Similarly, Yael Tamir has argued that the differences between the oft-dichotomized ethnic and civic nationalism are blurred.[3]

Ethnic nationalism

Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism,

The central tenet of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a

Ethnic nationalism was traditionally the determinant type of nationalism in Eastern Europe.[12]

Expansionist nationalism

Expansionist nationalism[13] is an aggressive radical form of nationalism or ethnic nationalism (ethnonationalism) that incorporates autonomous, heightened ethnic consciousness and patriotic sentiments with atavistic fears and hatreds focused on "other" or foreign peoples, framing a belief in expansion or recovery of formerly owned territories through militaristic means.[14][15][16]

Romantic nationalism

Romantic nationalism, also known as organic nationalism and identity nationalism, is the form of ethnic nationalism in which the state derives political legitimacy as a natural ("organic") consequence and expression of the nation, race, or ethnicity. It reflected the ideals of Romanticism and was opposed to Enlightenment rationalism. Romantic nationalism emphasized a historical ethnic culture which meets the Romantic Ideal; folklore developed as a Romantic nationalist concept. The Brothers Grimm were inspired by Herder's writings to create an idealized collection of tales which they labeled as ethnically German. Historian Jules Michelet exemplifies French romantic-nationalist history.

Civic nationalism

individual rights, and is not based on ethnocentrism.[17][18] Civic nationalists often defend the value of national identity by arguing that individuals need it as a partial shared aspect of their identity in order to lead meaningful, autonomous lives[19] and that democratic polities need a national identity to function properly.[20]

Membership in the civic nation is open to every person by citizenship, regardless of culture or ethnicity; those who share these values can be considered members of the nation.[21] In theory, a civic nation or state does not aim to promote one culture over another.[21] German philosopher Jürgen Habermas has argued that immigrants to a liberal-democratic state need not assimilate into the host culture but only accept the principles of the country's constitution (constitutional patriotism).[21]

Donald Ipperciel argues civic nationalism historically was a determining factor in the development of modern

20th-century fascists.[24]

Ideological nationalism

Revolutionary nationalism

Liberation nationalism

Many nationalist movements in the world are dedicated to

Socialism in One Country
edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context i.e. fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions.

Left-wing nationalism

Left-wing nationalism, also occasionally known as socialist nationalism,[35] refers to any political movement that combines left-wing politics or socialism with nationalism. Notable examples include Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement that launched the Cuban Revolution that ousted dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959, Ireland's Sinn Féin, Labor Zionism in Israel and the African National Congress in South Africa.

Schools of anarchism which acknowledge nationalism

anarchist political system based on local control, free federation, and mutual aid. There has been a long history of anarchist involvement with left-nationalism all over the world. Contemporary fusions of anarchism with anti-state left-nationalism include some strains of Black anarchism and indigenism
.

In the early to mid 19th century Europe, the ideas of nationalism, socialism, and liberalism were closely intertwined. Revolutionaries and radicals like Giuseppe Mazzini aligned with all three in about equal measure.[37] The early pioneers of anarchism participated in the spirit of their times: they had much in common with both liberals and socialists, and they shared much of the outlook of early nationalism as well. Thus Mikhail Bakunin had a long career as a pan-Slavic nationalist before adopting anarchism. He also agitated for a United States of Europe (a contemporary nationalist vision originated by Mazzini).[38] In 1880–1881, the Boston-based Irish nationalist W. G. H. Smart wrote articles for a magazine called The Anarchist.[39] Similarly, anarchists in China during the early part of the 20th century were very much involved in the left-wing of the nationalist movement while actively opposing racist elements of the anti-Manchu wing of that movement.

Pan-nationalism

Pan-nationalism is usually an ethnic and cultural nationalism, but the 'nation' is itself a cluster of related ethnic groups and cultures, such as Slavic peoples. Occasionally pan-nationalism is applied to mono-ethnic nationalism, when the national group is dispersed over a wide area and several states - as in Pan-Germanism.

Religious nationalism

politicization of religion and the converse influence of religion on politics. In the former aspect, a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, by the citizens of the nation. Another political aspect of religion is the support of a national identity, similar to a shared ethnicity, language or culture. The influence of religion on politics is more ideological, where current interpretations of religious ideas inspire political activism and action; for example, laws are passed to foster stricter religious adherence.[40] Hindu nationalism is common in many states and union territories in India
which joined the union of India solely on the basis of religion and post-colonial nationalism.

Post-colonial nationalism

Since the process of

decolonisation that occurred after World War II, there has been a rise of Third World nationalisms. Third world nationalisms occur in those nations that have been colonized and exploited. The nationalisms of these nations were forged in a furnace that required resistance to colonial domination in order to survive. As such, resistance is part and parcel of such nationalisms and their very existence is a form of resistance to imperialist intrusions. Third World nationalism attempts to ensure that the identities of Third World peoples are authored primarily by themselves, not colonial powers.[41]

Examples of third world nationalist ideologies are African nationalism and Arab nationalism. Other important nationalist movements in the developing world have included Indian nationalism, Chinese nationalism and the ideas of the Mexican Revolution and Haitian Revolution. Third world nationalist ideas have been particularly influential among governments elected in South America.

Multi-ethnic nationalism

Multi-ethnic nationalism is often confused with civic nationalism. However, some multi-ethnic nationalism tends to embrace multi-ethnic elements without embracing the core elements of civic nationalism.

Chinese nationalism is a representative multi-ethnic nationalism. The concept of "Zhonghua minzu" ("Chinese ethnicity") includes many indigenous minorities in China who already live on Chinese territory, but does not include immigrants who are not part of the traditional Chinese ethnic group (ex, Japanese Chinese, European Chinese, African Chinese, etc). Therefore, Chinese nationalism is multi-ethnic nationalism, but it is distinct from civic nationalism. Taiwanese nationalism[42] and India's composite nationalism is also considered a multi-ethnic nationalism.

Diaspora nationalism

Diaspora nationalism, or as Benedict Anderson terms it, "long-distance nationalism", generally refers to nationalist feeling among a diaspora such as the Irish in the United States, Jews around the world after the expulsion from Jerusalem (586 BCE), the Lebanese in the Americas and Africa, or Armenians in Europe and the United States.[43] Anderson states that this sort of nationalism acts as a "phantom bedrock" for people who want to experience a national connection, but who do not actually want to leave their diaspora community. The essential difference between pan-nationalism and diaspora nationalism is that members of a diaspora, by definition, are no longer resident in their national or ethnic homeland. In some instances, 'Diaspora' refers to a dispersal of a people from a (real or imagined) 'homeland' due to a cataclysmic disruption, such as war, famine, etc. New networks - new 'roots' - form along the 'routes' travelled by diasporic people, who are connected by a shared desire to return 'home'. In reality, the desire to return may be eschatological (i.e. end times orientation), or may not occur in any foreseeable future, but the longing for the lost homeland and the sense of difference from circumambient cultures in which Diasporic people live becomes an identity unto itself.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Umut Özkirimli, Umut. (2005). "Chapter 2: What is Nationalism?; A critique of the ethnic-civic distinction". Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 24–25.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link).
  2. ^ Umut Özkirimli, Umut. (2005). "Chapter 2: What is Nationalism?; A critique of the ethnic-civic distinction". Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 24–25.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. ISSN 1094-2939
    .
  4. ^ Leoussi 2001, p. 81-84.
  5. ^ Smith 1987, p. 134-138, 144–149.
  6. ^ Smith 2009, p. 61-80.
  7. ^ Smith 1981, p. 18.
  8. ^ Roshwald 2001.
  9. ^ Muller 2008.
  10. ^ Rangelov 2013.
  11. ^ Yilmaz 2018.
  12. .
  13. . Retrieved 19 April 2019.
  14. ISBN 9781137606044. Retrieved 19 April 2019.[permanent dead link
    ]
  15. ISBN 9781137437280. Retrieved 19 April 2019.[permanent dead link
    ]
  16. ^ "Nationalism Theory - Politics A-Level - Revision World". revisionworld.com. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
  17. . Retrieved 13 May 2017.
  18. .
  19. . 5(1): 1-17.
  20. 10(3): 231-250.
  21. ^ a b c ANNA STILZ. "Civic Nationalism and Language Policy". Philosophy & Public Affairs. 37 (3): 257.
  22. ISSN 1469-8129
    .
  23. .
  24. .
  25. ^ David A. Bell, "Lingua Populi, Lingua Dei: Language, Religion, and the Origins of French Revolutionary Nationalism" in The American Historical Review, Dec. 1995, Vol. 100, No. 5, p. 1436
  26. ^ Brian Jenkins, Irish Nationalism and the British State: From Repeal to Revolutionary Nationalism, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2006, p. 255
  27. ^ David L. Anderson, edit., The Columbia History of the Vietnam War, Columbia University Press, 2017, chapter: "Setting the Stage: Vietnamese Revolutionary Nationalism and the First Vietnam War," Mark Philip Bradley, p. 96-97
  28. ^ L.N. Rana, "Revolutionary Nationalism in Jharkhand" in Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 2000-2001, Vol. 61, Part One, p. 718
  29. ^ Robert F. Alegre, Railroad Radicals in Cold War Mexico: Gender, Class, and Memory, University of Nebraska Press, 2014, chapter: "'The Mexican Revolution Was Made on the Rails': Revolutionary Nationalism, Class Formation, and the Early Impact of the Cold War," p. 29
  30. ^ A. James Gregor, Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism, University of California Press, 1979, p. 99
  31. ^ Stephanie Cronin, "An Experiment in Revolutionary Nationalism: The Rebellion of Colonel Muhammad Taqi Khan Pasyan in Mashhad, April-October 1921" in Middle Eastern Studies, Oct. 1997, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 693
  32. ^ Christian Anglade, Carlos Fortin, edit., The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin America, Vol. 2, Palgrave Macmillan, 1990, chapter: "Capital Accumulation and Revolutionary Nationalism in Bolivia, 1952-85," Winston Moore Casanovas, p. 32
  33. ^ Akinyele Omowale Umoja, We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement, NYU Press, 2013, chapter: "'Black Revolution Has Come': Armed Insurgency, Black Power, and Revolutionary Nationalism in the Mississippi Freedom Struggle," p. 173
  34. ^ Basil Davidson, "On Revolutionary Nationalism: The Legacy of Cabral" in Latin American Perspectives, Spring, 1984, Vol. 11, No. 2
  35. ^ Political Science, Volume 35, Issue 2; Class and Nation: Problems of Socialist Nationalism
  36. ^ Eurominority (in English) Archived 2008-09-17 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ Hearder (1966), p. 46-47, 50.
  38. ^ Robert Knowles. "Anarchist Notions of Nationalism and Patriotism" Archived 2007-10-06 at the Wayback Machine
  39. ^ The Raven, No. 6.
  40. ^ Juergensmeyer, Mark. "The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism",Journal of International Affairs, Summer 1996, 50, 1.
  41. ^ Gunter Schubert; Jens Damm (2012). Taiwanese Identity in the 21st Century: Domestic, Regional and Global Perspectives. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 270. In the multi-ethnic nationalism approach, the Taiwanese nation is conceptualized as a harmonious, democratic and ...
  42. ^ Humphrey, Michael. 2004. Lebanese identities: between cities, nations and trans-nations. Arab Studies Quarterly, Winter 2004.