UNITA
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola | ||
---|---|---|
FALA (until 1993) | ||
Ideology | Big tent[1] Conservatism[2] Formerly: Left-wing nationalism[3] National Assembly 90 / 220 | |
Party flag | ||
Website | ||
www | ||
The National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (
Until 1996, UNITA was funded through Angolan diamond mines in both Lunda Norte and Lunda Sul along the Cuango River valley, especially the Catoca mine, which was Angola's only Kimberlite mine at that time.[11] Valdemar Chidondo served as chief of staff in the government of UNITA,[12] pro-Western rebels, during the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002). Jonas Savimbi, leader of UNITA, allegedly ordered Chidondo's assassination.[13]
Savimbi's successor as president of UNITA was Isaías Samakuva. Following Savimbi's death, UNITA abandoned armed struggle and participated in electoral politics. The party won 51 out of 220 seats in the 2017 parliamentary election. Samakuva resigned as party leader in November 2019, being replaced by Adalberto Costa Júnior.
Founding
Savimbi was originally affiliated with
Independence and civil war
After the Portuguese withdrawal from Angola in 1974–75 and the end of their colonial rule, the MPLA and UNITA splintered, and civil war began as the movements clashed militarily and ideologically. MPLA leader Agostinho Neto became the first president of post-colonial Angola. Backed by Soviet and Cuban money, weapons and troops, the MPLA defeated the FNLA militarily and forced them largely into exile.[16] UNITA also was nearly destroyed in November 1975, but it managed to survive and set up a second government, the Democratic People's Republic of Angola, in the provincial capital of Huambo. UNITA was hard-pressed but recovered with South African aid and then was strengthened considerably by U.S. support during the 1980s.[17] The MPLA's military presence was strongest in Angolan cities, the coastal region and the strategic oil fields. But UNITA controlled much of the highland's interior, notably the Bié Plateau, and other strategic regions of the country. Up to 300,000 Angolans died in the civil war.[17]
Guerrilla movement
United States involvement in regime change |
---|
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Savimbi sought out vastly expanded relations with the U.S. He received considerable guidance from
In 1986,
Under Savimbi's leadership, UNITA proved especially effective militarily before and after independence, becoming one of the world's most effective armed resistance movements of the late 20th century. According to the U.S. State Department, UNITA came to control "vast swaths of the interior (of Angola)".[26] Savimbi's very survival in Angola in and of itself was viewed as an incredible accomplishment, and he came to be known as "Africa's most enduring bush fighter"[27] given assassination attempts, aided by extensive Soviet, Cuban, and East German military troops, advisors and support, that he survived.[28]
As Savimbi gained ground despite the forces aligned against him, American conservatives pointed to his success, and that of Afghan mujahideen and the Nicaraguan contras, all of which, with U.S. support, were successfully opposing Soviet-sponsored governments, as evidence that the U.S. was beginning to gain an upper hand in the Cold War conflict and that the Reagan Doctrine was working. Critics, on the other hand, responded that the support given to UNITA, the contras, and the Afghan mujahideen was inflaming regional conflicts at great expense to these nations. Furthermore, UNITA, like the Angolan government it fought, was criticized for human rights abuses.[29]
1980s
UNITA gained some international notoriety in 1983 after abducting 66 Czechoslovak civilians and detaining a third of them for about 15 months.[30] Belgium eventually negotiated the release of the civilians. Fighting in Angola continued until 1989, when, with UNITA advancing militarily, Cuba withdrew its support, removing several thousand troops that it had dispatched to Angola to fight Savimbi's UNITA.[31] With many commentators and foreign policy specialists seeing that the Cold War might be drawing to an end, Savimbi's U.S. support, which had been strong, began to be questioned, with some in Congress urging the end of U.S. support for UNITA.[32] Matters were further complicated by repeated reports that Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev had raised U.S. support for UNITA in several formal and informal summit meetings with President George H. W. Bush, placing further pressure on the U.S. to end its support for UNITA.[33]
A ceasefire ultimately was negotiated and MPLA leader José Eduardo dos Santos and the MPLA's Central Committee rejected its Marxist past and agreed to Savimbi's demand for free and fair elections, though UNITA and its supporters viewed the promises skeptically, especially because the MPLA's relations with the Soviet Union remained strong.[35]
1990s
Following the 1991
As Savimbi resumed fighting, the U.N. responded by implementing an embargo against UNITA through
In 1999, a MPLA military offensive damaged UNITA considerably, essentially destroying UNITA as a conventional military force and forcing UNITA to return to more traditional guerilla tactics.[39][40]
2000s
The Angolan civil war ended only after the death of Savimbi, who was killed in an ambush on 22 February 2002. His death was shocking to many Angolans, many of whom had grown up during the Angolan civil war and witnessed Savimbi's ability to successfully evade efforts by Soviet, Cuban and Angolan troops to kill him.[41]
Six weeks following Savimbi's death, in April 2002, UNITA agreed to a ceasefire with the government. Under an amnesty agreement, UNITA soldiers and their families, comprising roughly 350,000 people, were gathered in 33 demobilisation camps under the "Program For Social and Productive Reintegration of Demobilized and War Displaced People". In August 2002, UNITA officially gave up its armed wing, and UNITA placed all of its efforts on the development of its political party. Despite the ceasefire, deep political conflict between UNITA and the MPLA remains.[42]
Savimbi was immediately succeeded by António Dembo, who died shortly after Savimbi. Following Dembo, in elections contested by General Paulo Lukamba Gato, Dinho Chingunji and Isaías Samakuva, Samakuva won the UNITA election and emerged as UNITA's new president.
In November 2019,
Foreign support
UNITA received support from several governments in Africa and around the world, including the
United States
During the
The U.S. government "explicitly encouraged" the governments of Israel, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and Zaire to aid UNITA. In 1983 the U.S. and South African governments agreed to ship weapons from the Honduras, Belgium and Switzerland to South Africa and then to UNITA in Angola. The U.S. also traded weapons with South Africa for intelligence on the civil war.[48]
Savimbi benefited from the support of influential American conservatives, including The Heritage Foundation's Michael Johns and other U.S. conservative leaders, who helped elevate Savimbi's stature in Washington and promoted the transfer of American weapons to his war.[49]
Johns and other American conservatives met regularly with Savimbi in remote
After the 1992 Angolan general election, UNITA lost its support from the United States and was only supported by South Africa.[10]
Electoral history
Presidential elections
Election | Party candidate | Votes | % | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
1992 | Jonas Savimbi | 1,579,298 | 40.07% | Lost |
2012 | Isaías Samakuva | 1,074,565 | 18.67% | Lost |
2017 | 1,818,903 | 26.68% | Lost | |
2022 | Adalberto Costa Júnior | 2,756,786 | 43.95% | Lost |
National Assembly elections
Election | Leader | Votes | % | Seats | +/– | Position | Government |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1992 | Jonas Savimbi | 1,347,636 | 34.10% | 70 / 220
|
New | 2nd | Opposition |
2008
|
Isaías Samakuva | 670,363 | 10.39% | 16 / 220
|
54 | 2nd | Opposition |
2012
|
1,074,565 | 18.66% | 32 / 220
|
16 | 2nd | Opposition | |
2017
|
1,790,320 | 26.70% | 51 / 220
|
19 | 2nd | Opposition | |
2022
|
Adalberto Costa Júnior | 2,756,786 | 43.95% | 90 / 220
|
39 | 2nd | Opposition |
See also
- African independence movements
- Blood Diamonds
- David Chingunji
- Jorge Sangumba
- Kafundanga Chingunji
- RENAMO, a similar group in Mozambique also supported by Apartheid South Africa
Notes
References
- ^ a b c d e JUSTINO, Jofre. A actual UNITA traiu o espírito de Muangai. Maputo, 2006
- ^ "Consulado Geral de Angola". Archived from the original on 2013-11-03.
- ^ "Angola: Jonas Savimbi: Who Was He?". Retrieved 26 August 2023.
- ^ "Angola-Emergence of Unita". Mongabay. February 1989. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ Silva, Márcia Maro da. A independência de Angola. Brasília : Fundação Alexandre de Gusmão, 2007.
- ^ "Angola".
- ISBN 978-0230337831. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ a b Hess, Morgan (2014). U.S.-Chinese Cooperation and Conflict in the Angolan Civil War (Thesis). City University of New York (CUNY) City College. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Hare, Paul (9 May 2007). "China in Angola: An Emerging Energy Partnership". Jamestown. Jamestown Foundation. Retrieved 28 January 2020 – via China Brief Volume: 6 Issue: 22.
- ^ a b c d e f g Simpson, Chris (25 February 2002). "Obituary: Jonas Savimbi, Unita's local boy". BBC. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- New York Times. Archived from the originalon 28 January 2020. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- ISBN 978-0-7453-1247-7.
- ISBN 978-1891855672.
- ISBN 978-1891855672.
- ^ Savimbi, Jonas (January 1986). The War against Soviet Colonialism. pp. 18–25.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - ^ "Political background – Angola – area, power". Nations Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ a b "Angola country profile – Overview". BBC News. 11 April 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ a b Johns, Michael (26 October 1989). "Savimbi's Elusive Victory in Angola". Human Events. Retrieved 20 January 2015 – via U.S. Congressional Record.[permanent dead link]
- Daily Beast. Retrieved August 28, 2021.
Updated on 6 November 2017.
- ^ Thomas, Evan (March 3, 1986). "The Slickest Shop in Town (page 1)". Time. Archived from the original on April 18, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2021.
- ^ Thomas, Evan (March 3, 1986). "The Slickest Shop in Town (page 2)". Time. Archived from the original on February 26, 2018. Retrieved August 28, 2021.
- ^ Shear, Michael D.; Birnbaum, Jeffrey H. (May 22, 2008). "McCain Adviser's Work As Lobbyist Criticized: Charles Black, John McCain's top political strategist, is now retired from a 30-year (page 1)". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2021.
- ^ Shear, Michael D.; Birnbaum, Jeffrey H. (May 22, 2008). "McCain Adviser's Work As Lobbyist Criticized: Charles Black, John McCain's top political strategist, is now retired from a 30-year (page 2)". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on April 16, 2016. Retrieved August 28, 2021.
- ^ Levine, Art (February 1992). "Inside Washington's Propaganda Shops: Publicists of the Damned". Spy (volume 6). pp. 52–60. Retrieved August 28, 2021.
See page 60. The full title of the article is "Believe it or not, there are Americans out there who have nice things to say about Saddam Hussein, Nicolae Ceaucescu, and the murderous governments of Zaire, Myanmar, and El Salvador - and they have better access to your congressman than you do. They're lobbyists, and they earn hundreds of thousands of dollars flacking for fascists and schmoozing on behalf of tyrants blithely waltzing through life as PUBLICISTS OF THE DAMNED."
- ^ Aaronovitch, David (7 June 2004). "Terrible legacy of the Reagan years". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ "Angola". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ "Angola: Key Figures". The Daily Telegraph. 8 August 2002. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ Taylor, Paul (19 December 1993). "Angolan peace talks stall over alleged attempt to kill Savimbi". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- ^ Ali B. Ali-Dinar, ed. (26 September 1999). "Angola: Human Rights Watch Report, 9/26/99". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- Radio Praha. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
- History.com. 10 January 1989. Archived from the originalon 8 March 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- ^ Root, Christine (5 May 1989). "Congress to Act Soon on Angola: Urgent Lobbying Needed" (PDF). Association of Concerned Africa Scholars. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- ^ Riding, Alan (2 June 1991). "U.S. and Soviets Bridge Gap on Conventional Weapons and Plan for Summit Soon; Bush Hails Accord". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
- ^ Michael Johns, With Freedom Near In Angola, This is No Time to Curtail Unita Assistance Archived 2014-08-10 at the Wayback Machine, Heritage Foundation Executive Memorandum 276, 31 July 1990, as entered in U.S. Congressional Record.
- ^ Johns, Michael (5 February 1990). "Angola: Testing Gorbachev's 'New Thinking'". The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- New York Times. Reuters. 22 November 1992. Archived from the originalon 28 January 2020. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ Fowler, Robert; Mollander, Anders (10 March 2000). "Final Report of the UN Panel of Experts ("The "Fowler Report")". Global Policy Forum. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
- ISBN 978-0253344465.
- New York Times. Agence France-Presse. 29 December 1999. Archived from the originalon 20 January 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ McGreal, Chris (27 December 1999). "Rebels lose former HQ to Angolan army". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ "Angolan rebel leader 'killed'". BBC News. 23 February 2002. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ "Angola opposition will contest election result". The Telegraph. 7 September 2008. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ "Arlete Chimbinda indicada Vice-Presidente da UNITA". CLUB-K ANGOLA - Notícias Imparciais de Angola (in European Portuguese). Retrieved 2021-01-25.
- ISBN 978-1555879310.
- ISBN 978-1850430698.
- ISBN 978-9004056466.
- ^ Stockwell, John. "1975, Angola: Mercenaries, Murder and Corruption". Coalition to Oppose the Arms Trade. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-0745310305.
- ^ "Congress.gov | Library of Congress". thomas.loc.gov. Archived from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 6 July 2017.
Further reading
- Didier Péclard, "Les incertitudes de la nation en Angola: Aux racines sociales de l'Unita", Paris: Karthala, (2015).
- Hoekstra, Quint. "The effect of foreign state support to UNITA during the Angolan War (1975–1991)." Small Wars & Insurgencies 29.5-6 (2018): 981–1005.
- Pearce, Justin. "From Rebellion to Opposition: UNITA’s Social Engagement in Post-War Angola." Government and Opposition 55.3 (2020): 474–489.
- Wright, George. The Destruction of a Nation: United States' Policy Towards Angola Since 1945 (1997)
External links
- Official website (in Portuguese)
- Unita campaign website Archived 2009-05-12 at the Wayback Machine (in Portuguese)
- French interview of Jonas Savimbi in 1978
- List of attacks attributed to Unita on the START terrorism database, Profile on START Archived 2013-01-11 at the Wayback Machine