Uyghurs
| ||
---|---|---|
Turkey 100,000–300,000[5] | | |
Kyrgyzstan | 60,210 (2021)[6] | |
Uzbekistan | 48,500 (2019)[7] | |
United States | 8,905 (per US Census Bureau 2015)[8] – 15,000 (per ETGE estimate 2021)[9] | |
Saudi Arabia | 8,730 (2018)[10] | |
Australia | 5,000–10,000[11] | |
Russia | 3,696 (2010)[12] | |
India | ~3,500[13] | |
Turkmenistan | ~3,000[14] | |
Afghanistan | 2,000[15] | |
Japan | 2,000 (2021)[16] | |
Sweden | 2,000 (2019)[17] | |
Canada | ~1,555 (2016)[18] | |
Germany | ~750 (2013)[19] | |
Finland | 327 (2021)[20] | |
Mongolia | 258 (2000)[21] | |
Ukraine | 197 (2001)[22] | |
Languages | ||
Religion | ||
Predominantly Sunni Islam | ||
Related ethnic groups | ||
Uzbeks[23] and other Turkic peoples; Tajiks[24] |
Uyghurs | |
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Uyghur name | |
Hanyu Pinyin | Wéiwú'ěr |
Bopomofo | ㄨㄟˊ ㄨˊ ㄦˇ |
Wade–Giles | Wei2-wu2-erh3 |
Tongyong Pinyin | Wéi-wú-ěr |
IPA | [wěɪ.ǔ.àɚ] |
Part of a series on |
Uyghurs |
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Uyghurs outside of Xinjiang Uyghur organizations
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The Uyghurs,
The Uyghurs have traditionally inhabited a series of oases scattered across the Taklamakan Desert within the Tarim Basin. These oases have historically existed as independent states or were controlled by many civilizations including China, the Mongols, the Tibetans and various Turkic polities. The Uyghurs gradually started to become Islamized in the 10th century, and most Uyghurs identified as Muslims by the 16th century. Islam has since played an important role in Uyghur culture and identity.
An estimated 80% of Xinjiang's Uyghurs still live in the Tarim Basin.[31] The rest of Xinjiang's Uyghurs mostly live in Ürümqi, the capital city of Xinjiang, which is located in the historical region of Dzungaria. The largest community of Uyghurs living outside of Xinjiang are the Taoyuan Uyghurs of north-central Hunan's Taoyuan County.[32] Significant diasporic communities of Uyghurs exist in other Turkic countries such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkey.[33] Smaller communities live in Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Australia, Russia and Sweden.[34]
Since 2014,
Etymology
In the Uyghur language, the ethnonym is written ئۇيغۇر in Arabic script, Уйғур in Uyghur Cyrillic and Uyghur or Uygur (as the standard Chinese romanization, GB 3304–1991) in Latin;[47] they are all pronounced as [ʔʊjˈʁʊːr].[48][49] In Chinese, this is transcribed into characters as 维吾尔 / 維吾爾, which is romanized in pinyin as Wéiwú'ěr.
In English, the name is officially spelled Uyghur by the Xinjiang government[50] but also appears as Uighur,[51] Uigur[51] and Uygur (these reflect the various Cyrillic spellings Уиғур, Уигур and Уйгур). The name is usually pronounced in English as /ˈwiːɡʊər, -ɡər/ WEE-goor, -gər (and is thus preceded by the indefinite article "a"),[51][52][53][27] although some Uyghurs advocate the use of a more native pronunciation /ˌuːiˈɡʊər/ OO-ee-GOOR instead (which, in contrast, calls for the article "an").[25][26][54]
The term's original meaning is unclear. Old Turkic inscriptions record the word uyɣur[55] (Old Turkic: 𐰆𐰖𐰍𐰆𐰺); an example is found on the Sudzi inscription, "I am khan ata of Yaglaqar, came from the Uigur land." (Old Turkic: Uyγur jerinte Yaγlaqar qan ata keltim).[56] It is transcribed into Tang annals as 回纥 / 回紇 (Mandarin: Huíhé, but probably *[ɣuɒiɣət] in Middle Chinese).[57] It was used as the name of one of the Turkic polities formed in the interim between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates (AD 630–684).[58] The Old History of the Five Dynasties records that in 788 or 809, the Chinese acceded to a Uyghur request and emended their transcription to 回鹘 / 回鶻 (Mandarin: Huíhú, but [ɣuɒiɣuət] in Middle Chinese).[59][60]
Modern etymological explanations for the name Uyghur range from derivation from the verb "follow, accommodate oneself"[51] and adjective "non-rebellious" (i.e., from Turkic uy/uð-) to the verb meaning "wake, rouse or stir" (i.e., from Turkic oðğur-). None of these is thought to be satisfactory because the sound shift of /ð/ and /ḏ/ to /j/ does not appear to be in place by this time.[59] The etymology therefore cannot be conclusively determined and its referent is also difficult to fix. The "Huihe" and "Huihu" seem to be a political rather than a tribal designation[61] or it may be one group among several others collectively known as the Toquz Oghuz.[62] The name fell out of use in the 15th century, but was reintroduced in the early 20th century[48][49] by the Soviet Bolsheviks to replace the previous terms Turk and Turki.[63][note 3] The name is currently used to refer to the settled Turkic urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, distinguishable from the nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia.
The earliest record of a Uyghur tribe appears in accounts from the Northern Wei (4th–6th century A.D.), wherein they were named 袁紇 Yuanhe (< MC ZS *ɦʉɐn-ɦət) and derived from a confederation named 高车 / 高車 (lit. "High Carts"), read as Gāochē in Mandarin Chinese but originally with the reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation *[kɑutɕʰĭa], later known as the Tiele (铁勒 / 鐵勒, Tiělè).[65][66][67] Gāochē in turn has been connected to the Uyghur Qangqil (قاڭقىل or Қаңқил).[68]
Identity
Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has had an increasingly expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in northern China, Mongolia and the Altai Mountains, it later denoted citizenship in the Uyghur Khaganate. Finally, it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, causing Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin. The Uyghurs who moved to the Tarim Basin mixed with the local Tocharians, and converted to the Tocharian religion, and adopted their culture of oasis agriculture.[69][70] The fluid definition of Uyghur and the diverse ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion as to what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography and ethnogenesis. Contemporary scholars consider modern Uyghurs to be the descendants of a number of peoples, including the ancient Uyghurs of Mongolia migrating into the Tarim Basin after the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate, Iranic Saka tribes and other Indo-European peoples inhabiting the Tarim Basin before the arrival of the Turkic Uyghurs.[71]
Uyghur activists identify with the Tarim mummies, remains of an ancient people inhabiting the region, but research into the genetics of ancient Tarim mummies and their links with modern Uyghurs remains problematic, both to Chinese government officials concerned with ethnic separatism and to Uyghur activists concerned the research could affect their indigenous claim.[72]
A genomic study published in 2021 found that these early mummies had high levels of
Origin of modern nomenclature
The Uighurs are the people whom old Russian travelers called "Sart" (a name they used for sedentary, Turkish-speaking Central Asians in general), while Western travelers called them Turki, in recognition of their language. The Chinese used to call them "Ch'an-t'ou" ('Turbaned Heads') but this term has been dropped, being considered derogatory, and the Chinese, using their own pronunciation, now called them Weiwuerh. As a matter of fact there was for centuries no 'national' name for them; people identified themselves with the oasis they came from, such as Kashgar or Turfan.
— Owen Lattimore, "Return to China's Northern Frontier." The Geographical Journal, Vol. 139, No. 2, June 1973[77]
The term "Uyghur" was not used to refer to a specific existing ethnicity in the 19th century: it referred to an 'ancient people'. A late-19th-century encyclopedia entitled The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia said "the Uigur are the most ancient of Turkish tribes and formerly inhabited a part of Chinese Tartary (Xinjiang), now occupied by a mixed population of Turk, Mongol and
Rian Thum explored the concepts of identity among the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs in Altishahr (the native Uyghur name for Eastern Turkestan or Southern Xinjiang) before the adoption of the name "Uyghur" in the 1930s, referring to them by the name "Altishahri" in his article Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism. Thum indicated that Altishahri Turkis did have a sense that they were a distinctive group separate from the Turkic Andijanis to their west, the nomadic Turkic Kirghiz, the nomadic Mongol Qalmaq and the Han Chinese Khitay before they became known as Uyghurs. There was no single name used for their identity; various native names Altishahris used for identify were Altishahrlik (Altishahr person), yerlik (local), Turki and Musulmān (Muslim); the term Musulmān in this situation did not signify religious connotations, because the Altishahris exclude other Muslim peoples like the Kirghiz while identifying themselves as Musulmān.[92][93] Dr. Laura J Newby says the sedentary Altishahri Turkic people considered themselves separate from other Turkic Muslims since at least the 19th century.[94]
The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the
On the other hand, the ruling regime of China at that time, the Kuomintang, grouped all Muslims, including the Turkic-speaking people of Xinjiang, into the "Hui nationality".[102][103] The Qing dynasty and the Kuomintang generally referred to the sedentary oasis-dwelling Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang as "turban-headed Hui" to differentiate them from other predominantly Muslim ethnicities in China.[79][104][note 4] In the 1930s, foreigners travelers in Xinjiang such as George W. Hunter, Peter Fleming, Ella Maillart and Sven Hedin, referred to the Turkic Muslims of the region as "Turki" in their books. Use of the term Uyghur was unknown in Xinjiang until 1934. The area governor, Sheng Shicai, came to power, adopting the Soviet ethnographic classification instead of the Kuomintang's and became the first to promulgate the official use of the term "Uyghur" to describe the Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[79][97][106] "Uyghur" replaced "rag-head".[107]
Sheng Shicai's introduction of the "Uighur" name for the Turkic people of Xinjiang was criticized and rejected by Turki intellectuals such as Pan-Turkist Jadids and East Turkestan independence activists Muhammad Amin Bughra (Mehmet Emin) and Masud Sabri. They demanded the names "Türk" or "Türki" be used instead as the ethnonyms for their people. Masud Sabri viewed the Hui people as Muslim Han Chinese and separate from his people,[108] while Bughrain criticized Sheng for his designation of Turkic Muslims into different ethnicities which could sow disunion among Turkic Muslims.[109][110] After the Communist victory, the Chinese Communist Party under Chairman Mao Zedong continued the Soviet classification, using the term "Uyghur" to describe the modern ethnicity.[79]
In current usage, Uyghur refers to settled Turkic-speaking urban dwellers and farmers of the Tarim Basin and Ili who follow traditional Central Asian sedentary practices, as distinguished from nomadic Turkic populations in Central Asia. However, Chinese government agents[clarification needed] designate as "Uyghur" certain peoples with significantly divergent histories and ancestries from the main group. These include the Lopliks of Ruoqiang County and the Dolan people, thought to be closer to the Oirat Mongols and the Kyrgyz.[111][112] The use of the term Uyghur led to anachronisms when describing the history of the people.[113] In one of his books, the term Uyghur was deliberately not used by James Millward.[114]
Another ethnicity, the
"Turkistani" is used as an alternate ethnonym by some Uyghurs.[118] For example, the Uyghur diaspora in Arabia, adopted the identity "Turkistani". Some Uyghurs in Saudi Arabia adopted the Arabic nisba of their home city, such as "Al-Kashgari" from Kashgar. Saudi-born Uyghur Hamza Kashgari's family originated from Kashgar.[119][120]
Population
The Uyghur population within China generally remains centered in Xinjiang region with some smaller subpopulations elsewhere in the country, such as in Taoyuan County where an estimated 5,000–10,000 live.[121][122]
The size of the Uyghur population, particularly in China, has been the subject of dispute. Chinese authorities place the Uyghur population within the Xinjiang region to be just over 12 million, comprising approximately half of the total regional population.[123] As early as 2003, however, some Uyghur groups wrote that their population was being vastly undercounted by Chinese authorities, claiming that their population actually exceeded 20 million.[124] Population disputes have continued into the present, with some activists and groups such as the World Uyghur Congress and Uyghur American Association claiming that the Uyghur population ranges between 20 and 30 million.[125][126][127][128] Some have even claimed that the real number of Uyghurs is actually 35 million.[129][130] Scholars, however, have generally rejected these claims, with Professor Dru C. Gladney writing in the 2004 book Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland that there is "scant evidence" to support Uyghur claims that their population within China exceeds 20 million.[131]
Population in Xinjiang
Area | 1953 Census | 1964 Census | 1982 Census | 1990 Census | 2000 Census | 2010 Census | Ref. | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | PCT. | Total | PCT. | Total | PCT. | Total | PCT. | Total | PCT. | Total | PCT. | ||
Ürümqi | 28,786 | 19.11% | 56,345 | 9.99% | 121,561 | 10.97% | 266,342 | 12.79% | 387,878 | 12.46% | [132] | ||
Karamay | Not applicable | 23,730 | 14.54% | 30,895 | 15.09% | 37,245 | 13.78% | 44,866 | 11.47% | [133] | |||
Turpan | 139,391 | 89.93% | 170,512 | 75.61% | 294,039 | 71.14% | 351,523 | 74.13% | 385,546 | 70.01% | 429,527 | 68.96% | [134] |
Hami | 33,312 | 41.12% | 42,435 | 22.95% | 75,557 | 20.01% | 84,790 | 20.70% | 90,624 | 18.42% | 101,713 | 17.77% | [135] |
Changji | 18,784 | 7.67% | 23,794 | 5.29% | 44,944 | 3.93% | 52,394 | 4.12% | 58,984 | 3.92% | 63,606 | 4.45% | [136] |
Bortala | 8,723 | 21.54% | 18,432 | 15.53% | 38,428 | 13.39% | 53,145 | 12.53% | 59,106 | 13.32% | [137] | ||
Bayingolin | 121,212 | 75.79% | 153,737 | 46.07% | 264,592 | 35.03% | 310,384 | 36.99% | 345,595 | 32.70% | 406,942 | 31.83% | [138] |
Kizilsu | Not applicable | 122,148 | 68.42% | 196,500 | 66.31% | 241,859 | 64.36 | 281,306 | 63.98% | 339,926 | 64.68% | [139] | |
Ili | 568,109 | 23.99% | 667,202 | 26.87% | |||||||||
Aksu | 697,604 | 98.17% | 778,920 | 80.44% | 1,158,659 | 76.23% | 1,342,138 | 79.07% | 1,540,633 | 71.93% | 1,799,512 | 75.90% | [140] |
Kashgar | 1,567,069 | 96.99% | 1,671,336 | 93.63% | 2,093,152 | 87.92% | 2,606,775 | 91.32% | 3,042,942 | 89.35% | 3,606,779 | 90.64% | [141] |
Hotan | 717,277 | 99.20% | 774,286 | 96.52% | 1,124,331 | 96.58% | 1,356,251 | 96.84% | 1,621,215 | 96.43% | 1,938,316 | 96.22% | [142] |
Tacheng | 36,437 | 6.16% | 36,804 | 4.12% | 38,476 | 3.16% | [143] | ||||||
Altay | 3,622 | 3.73% | 6,471 | 3.09% | 10,255 | 2.19% | 10,688 | 2.09% | 10,068 | 1.79% | 8,703 | 1.44% | [144] |
Shihezi | Not applicable | Not applicable | 7,064 | 1.20% | 7,574 | 1.99% | |||||||
Aral | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | 9,481 | 5.78% | ||||||
Tumxuk | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | 91,472 | 67.39% | ||||||
Wujiaqu | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | Not applicable | 223 | 0.23% | ||||||
Ref. | [145] | [146] | – |
Genetics
A study of mitochondrial DNA (2004) (therefore the matrilineal genetic contribution) found the frequency of Western Eurasian-specific haplogroup in Uyghurs to be 42.6% and East Asian haplogroup to be 57.4%.[147][148] Uyghurs in Kazakhstan on the other hand were shown to have 55% European/Western Eurasian maternal mtDNA.[148]
A study based on
One study by Xu et al. (2008), using samples from Hetian (
A different study by Li et al. (2009) used a larger sample of individuals from a wider area and found a higher East Asian component of about 70% on average, while the European/West Asian component was about 30%. Overall, Uyghur show relative more similarity to "Western East Asians" than to "Eastern East Asians". The authors also cite anthropologic studies which also estimate about 30% "Western proportions", which are in agreement with their genetic results.[152]
A study (2013) based on
A Study (2016) of Uyghur males living in southern Xinjiang used high-resolution 26 Y-STR loci system high-resolution to infer the genetic relationships between the Uyghur population and European and Asian populations. The results showed the Uyghur population of southern Xinjiang exhibited a genetic admixture of Eastern Asian and European populations but with slightly closer relationship with European populations than to Eastern Asian populations.[155]
An extensive genome study in 2017 analyzed 951 samples of Uyghurs from 14 geographical subpopulations in Xinjiang and observed a southwest and northeast differentiation in the population, partially caused by the
A 2018 study of 206 Uyghur samples from Xinjiang, using the ancestry-informative SNP (AISNP) analysis, found that the average genetic ancestry of Uyghurs is 63.7% East Asian-related and 36.3% European-related.[157]
History
The history of the Uyghur people, as with the ethnic origin of the people, is a matter of contention.[158] Uyghur historians viewed the Uyghurs as the original inhabitants of Xinjiang with a long history. Uyghur politician and historian Muhammad Amin Bughra wrote in his book A History of East Turkestan, stressing the Turkic aspects of his people, that the Turks have a continuous 9000-year-old history, while historian Turghun Almas incorporated discoveries of Tarim mummies to conclude that Uyghurs have over 6400 years of continuous history,[159] and the World Uyghur Congress claimed a 4,000-year history in East Turkestan.[160] However, the official Chinese view, as documented in the white paper History and Development of Xinjiang, asserts that the Uyghur ethnic group formed after the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, when the local residents of the Tarim Basin and its surrounding areas were merged with migrants from the khaganate.[161] The name "Uyghur" reappeared after the Soviet Union took the 9th-century ethnonym from the Uyghur Khaganate, then reapplied it to all non-nomadic Turkic Muslims of Xinjiang.[162] Many contemporary western scholars, however, do not consider the modern Uyghurs to be of direct linear descent from the old Uyghur Khaganate of Mongolia. Rather, they consider them to be descendants of a number of peoples, one of them the ancient Uyghurs.[71][163][164][165]
Early history
Discovery of well-preserved
Later migrations brought peoples from the west and northwest to the Xinjiang region, probably speakers of various Iranian languages such as the
The Yuezhi were driven away by the Xiongnu but founded the
The early
Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th centuries)
The Uyghurs of the Uyghur Khaganate were part of a Turkic confederation called the
The Uyghur Khaganate lasted from 744 to 840.
Uyghur kingdoms (9th–11th centuries)
The Uyghurs who founded the Uyghur Khaganate dispersed after the fall of the Khaganate, to live among the
The second Uyghur kingdom, the
Islamization
Part of a series on Islam in China |
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Islam portal • China portal |
In the tenth century, the
The Karakhanids converted to Islam in the tenth century beginning with
The 12th and 13th century saw the domination by non-Muslim powers: first the
From the late 14th through 17th centuries, the Xinjiang region became further subdivided into Moghulistan in the north, Altishahr (Kashgar and the Tarim Basin), and the Turfan area, each often ruled separately by competing Chagatayid descendants, the Dughlats, and later the Khojas.[188]
Islam was also spread by the
Qing rule
In the 17th century, the Buddhist Dzungar Khanate grew in power in Dzungaria. The Dzungar conquest of Altishahr ended the last independent Chagatai Khanate, the Yarkent Khanate, after the Aqtaghlik Afaq Khoja sought aid from the 5th Dalai Lama and his Dzungar Buddhist followers to help him in his struggle against the Qarataghlik Khojas. The Aqtaghlik Khojas in the Tarim Basin then became vassals to the Dzungars.
The expansion of the Dzungars into Khalkha Mongol territory in Mongolia brought them into direct conflict with Qing China in the late 17th century, and in the process also brought Chinese presence back into the region a thousand years after Tang China lost control of the Western Regions.[193]
The
The final campaign against the Dzungars in the 1750s ended with the Dzungar genocide. The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungar Mongols created a land devoid of Dzungars, which was followed by the Qing sponsored settlement of millions of other people in Dzungaria.[196][197] In northern Xinjiang, the Qing brought in Han, Hui, Uyghur, Xibe, Daurs, Solons, Turkic Muslim Taranchis and Kazakh colonists, with one third of Xinjiang's total population consisting of Hui and Han in the northern area, while around two thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin.[198] In Dzungaria, the Qing established new cities like Ürümqi and Yining.[199] The Dzungarian basin itself is now inhabited by many Kazakhs.[200] The Qing therefore unified Xinjiang and changed its demographic composition as well.[201]: 71 The crushing of the Buddhist Dzungars by the Qing led to the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, and increasing Turkic Muslim power, with Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.[201]: 76 It was therefore argued by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam".[201]: 72
In Beijing, a community of Uyghurs was clustered around the mosque near the Forbidden City, having moved to Beijing in the 18th century.[202]
The
-
Uyghur people from
Yettishar
During the
Qing reconquest
After this invasion, the two regions of Dzungaria, which had been known as the Dzungar region or the Northern marches of the Tian Shan,[211][212] and the Tarim Basin, which had been known as "Muslim land" or southern marches of the Tian Shan,[213] were reorganized into a province named Xinjiang, meaning "New Territory".[214][215]
First East Turkestan Republic
In 1912, the Qing Dynasty was replaced by the Republic of China. By 1920, Pan-Turkic
Second East Turkestan Republic
The oppressive reign of
Contemporary era
Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. |
---|---|---|
1990[229] | 7,214,431 | — |
2000 | 8,405,416 | +1.54% |
2010 | 10,069,346 | +1.82% |
Figures from Chinese Census |
Mao declared the founding of the People's Republic of China on 1 October 1949. He turned the Second East Turkistan Republic into the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture, and appointed Saifuddin Azizi as the region's first Communist Party governor. Many Republican loyalists fled into exile in Turkey and Western countries. The name Xinjiang was changed to Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, where Uyghurs are the largest ethnicity, mostly concentrated in the south-western Xinjiang.[230]
The Xinjiang conflict is a separatist conflict in China's far-west province of Xinjiang, whose northern region is known as Dzungaria and whose southern region (the Tarim Basin) is known as East Turkestan. Uyghur separatists and independence groups claim that the Second East Turkestan Republic was illegally incorporated by China in 1949 and has since been under Chinese occupation. Uyghur identity remains fragmented, as some support a
Eric Enno Tamm's 2011 book stated that "authorities have censored Uyghur writers and 'lavished funds' on official histories that depict Chinese territorial expansion into ethnic borderlands as 'unifications (tongyi), never as conquests (zhengfu) or annexations (tunbing)' "[235]
Human rights abuses against Uyghurs in Xinjiang
In 2014, the Chinese government announced a "
Leaked Chinese government operating procedures state that the main feature of the camps is to ensure adherence to CCP ideology, with the inmates being continuously held captive in the camps for a minimum of 12 months depending on their performance on Chinese ideology tests.[244] The New York Times has reported inmates are required to "sing hymns praising the Chinese Communist Party and write 'self-criticism' essays," and that prisoners are also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by prison guards.[245] Chinese officials have sometimes assigned to monitor the families of current inmates, and women have been detained due to actions by their sons or husbands.[245]
Other policies have included
Uyghurs of Taoyuan, Hunan
Around 5,000 Uyghurs live around
The Uyghur troops led by Hala were ordered by the Ming Emperor to crush Miao rebellions and were given titles by him. Jian is the predominant surname among the Uyghur in Changde, Hunan. Another group of Uyghur have the surname Sai. Hui and Uyghur have intermarried in the Hunan area. The Hui are descendants of Arabs and Han Chinese who intermarried and they share the Islamic religion with the Uyghur in Hunan. It is reported that they now number around 10,000 people. The Uyghurs in Changde are not very religious and eat pork. Older Uyghurs disapprove of this, especially elders at the mosques in Changde and they seek to draw them back to Islamic customs.[274]
In addition to eating pork, the Uyghurs of Changde Hunan practice other Han Chinese customs, like ancestor worship at graves. Some Uyghurs from Xinjiang visit the Hunan Uyghurs out of curiosity or interest. Also, the Uyghurs of Hunan do not speak the Uyghur language, instead, they speak Chinese[clarification needed] as their native language and Arabic for religious reasons at the mosque.[274]
Culture
Religion
The ancient Uyghurs believed in many local deities. These practices gave rise to
People in the Western Tarim Basin region began their conversion to Islam early in the Kara-Khanid Khanate period.[189] Some pre-Islamic practices continued under Muslim rule; for example, while the Quran dictated many rules on marriage and divorce, other pre-Islamic principles based on Zoroastrianism also helped shape the laws of the land.[280] There had been Christian conversions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but these were suppressed by the First East Turkestan Republic government agents.[281][282][283] Because of persecution, the churches were destroyed and the believers were scattered.[284] According to the national census, 0.5% or 1,142 Uyghurs in Kazakhstan were Christians in 2009.[285]
Modern Uyghurs are primarily Muslim and they are the second-largest predominantly Muslim ethnicity in China after the Hui.[286] The majority of modern Uyghurs are Sunnis, although additional conflicts exist between Sufi and non-Sufi religious orders.[286] While modern Uyghurs consider Islam to be part of their identity, religious observance varies between different regions. In general, Muslims in the southern region, Kashgar in particular, are more conservative. For example, women wearing the veil (a piece of cloth covering the head completely) are more common in Kashgar than some other cities.[287] The veil, however, has been banned in some cities since 2014 after it became more popular.[288]
There is also a general split between the Uyghurs and the Hui Muslims in Xinjiang and they normally worship in different mosques.[289] The Chinese government discourages religious worship among the Uyghurs,[290] and there is evidence of thousands of Uyghur mosques including historic ones being destroyed.[291] According to a 2020 Australian Strategic Policy Institute report, Chinese authorities since 2017 have destroyed or damaged 16,000 mosques in Xinjiang.[292][293]
In the early 21st century, a new trend of Islam, Salafism, emerged in Xinjiang, mostly among the Turkic population including Uyghurs, although there are Hui Salafis. These Salafis tended to demonstrate pan-Islamism and abandoned nationalism in favor of a caliphate to rule Xinjiang in the event of independence from China.[294][295] Many Uyghur Salafis have allied themselves with the Turkistan Islamic Party in response to growing repression of Uyghurs by China.[296]
Language
The ancient people of the Tarim Basin originally spoke different languages, such as
The modern Uyghur language is classified under the
Modern Uyghurs have adopted a number of scripts for their language. The
In the 1990s, many Uyghurs in parts of Xinjiang could not speak Mandarin Chinese.[301]
Literature
The literary works of the ancient Uyghurs were mostly translations of Buddhist and Manichaean religious texts,
Exiled Uyghur writers and poets, such as Muyesser Abdul'ehed, use literature to highlight the issues facing their community.[307]
Music
Muqam is the classical musical style. The 12 Muqams are the national oral epic of the Uyghurs. The muqam system was developed among the Uyghur in northwestern China and Central Asia over approximately the last 1500 years from the Arabic maqamat modal system that has led to many musical genres among peoples of Eurasia and North Africa. Uyghurs have local muqam systems named after the oasis towns of Xinjiang, such as Dolan, Ili, Kumul and Turpan. The most fully developed at this point is the Western Tarim region's 12 muqams, which are now a large canon of music and songs recorded by the traditional performers Turdi Akhun and Omar Akhun among others in the 1950s and edited into a more systematic system. Although the folk performers probably improvized their songs, as in Turkish taksim performances, the present institutional canon is performed as fixed compositions by ensembles.
The Uyghur Muqam of Xinjiang has been designated by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[308]
Amannisa Khan, sometimes called Amanni Shahan (1526–1560), is credited with collecting and thereby preserving the Twelve Muqam.[309] Russian scholar Pantusov writes that the Uyghurs manufactured their own musical instruments, they had 62 different kinds of musical instruments, and in every Uyghur home there used to be an instrument called a "duttar".
Uzbek composer Shakhida Shaimardanova uses themes from Uyghur folk music in her compositions.[310]
Dance
Art
During the late-19th and early-20th centuries, scientific and archaeological expeditions to the region of Xinjiang's
Education
Historically, the education level of Old Uyghur people was higher than the other ethnicities around them. The Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho became the civil servants of Mongol Empire and Old Uyghur Buddhists enjoyed a high status in the Mongol empire. They also introduced the written script for the Mongolian language. In the Islamic era, education was provided by the mosques and madrassas. During the Qing era, Chinese Confucian schools were also set up in Xinjiang[315] and in the late 19th century Christian missionary schools.[316]
In the late nineteenth and early 20th century, schools were often located in mosques and madrassas. Mosques ran informal schools, known as
In more recent times, religious education is highly restricted in Xinjiang and the Chinese authority had sought to eradicate any religious school they considered illegal.[326][327] Although Islamic private schools (Sino-Arabic schools (中阿學校)) have been supported and permitted by the Chinese government among Hui Muslim areas since the 1980s, this policy does not extend to schools in Xinjiang due to fear of separatism.[328][329][330]
Beginning in the early 20th century, secular education became more widespread. Early in the communist era, Uyghurs had a choice of two separate secular school systems, one conducted in their own language and one offering instructions only in Chinese.
Traditional medicine
Uyghur traditional medicine is known as
Cuisine
Uyghur food shows both
Uyghur food (Uyghur Yemekliri, Уйғур Йәмәклири) is characterized by
and fruits.A Uyghur-style breakfast consists of
and fruit before the main dishes are ready.A cake sold by Uyghurs is the traditional Uyghur nut cake.[343][344][345]
Clothing
Chapan, a coat, and doppa, a type of hat for men, is commonly worn by Uyghurs. Another type of headwear, salwa telpek (salwa tälpäk, салва тәлпәк), is also worn by Uyghurs.[346]
In the early 20th century, face covering veils with velvet caps trimmed with otter fur were worn in the streets by Turki women in public in Xinjiang as witnessed by the adventurer Ahmad Kamal in the 1930s.[347] Travelers of the period Sir Percy Sykes and Ella Sykes wrote that in Kashghar women went into the bazar "transacting business with their veils thrown back" but mullahs tried to enforce veil wearing and were "in the habit of beating those who show their face in the Great Bazar".[348] In that period, belonging to different social statuses meant a difference in how rigorously the veil was worn.[349]
Muslim Turkestani men traditionally cut all the hair off their head.[350] Sir Aurel Stein observed that the "Turki Muhammadan, accustomed to shelter this shaven head under a substantial fur-cap when the temperature is so low as it was just then".[351] No hair cutting for men took place on the ajuz ayyam, days of the year that were considered inauspicious.[352]
Traditional handicrafts
Yengisar is famous for manufacturing Uyghur handcrafted knives.[353][354][355] The Uyghur word for knife is pichaq (پىچاق, пичақ) and the word for knifemaking (cutler) is pichaqchiliq (پىچاقچىلىقى, пичақчилиқ).[356] Uyghur artisan craftsmen in Yengisar are known for their knife manufacture. Uyghur men carry such knives as part of their culture to demonstrate the masculinity of the wearer,[357] but it has also led to ethnic tension.[358][359] Limitations were placed on knife vending due to concerns over terrorism and violent assaults.[360]
Livelihood
Most Uyghurs are agriculturists.[citation needed] Cultivating crops in an arid region has made the Uyghurs excel in irrigation techniques. This includes the construction and maintenance of underground channels called karez that brings water from the mountains to their fields. A few of the well-known agricultural goods include apples (especially from Ghulja), sweet melons (from Hami), and grapes from Turpan. However, many Uyghurs are also employed in the mining, manufacturing, cotton, and petrochemical industries. Local handicrafts like rug-weaving and jade-carving are also important to the cottage industry of the Uyghurs.[361]
Some Uyghurs have been given jobs through Chinese government affirmative action programs.[362] Uyghurs may also have difficulty receiving non-interest loans (per Islamic beliefs).[363] The general lack of Uyghur proficiency in Mandarin Chinese also creates a barrier to access private and public sector jobs.[364]
Names
Since the arrival of Islam, most Uyghurs have used "Arabic names", but traditional Uyghur names and names of other origin are still used by some.
See also
Explanatory notes
- ^ The size of the Uyghur population is disputed between Chinese authorities and Uyghur sources. The § Population section of this article further discusses this dispute.
- ^ .
- Uyghur: ئۇيغۇرلار, Уйғурлар, Uyghurlar, IPA: [ujɣurˈlɑr]
- simplified Chinese: 维吾尔; traditional Chinese: 維吾爾; pinyin: Wéiwú'ěr, IPA: [wěɪ.ǔ.àɚ][25][26]
- For the English pronunciation, see Etymology
- ^ a b The term Turk was a generic label used by members of many ethnicities in Soviet Central Asia. Often the deciding factor for classifying individuals belonging to Turkic nationalities in the Soviet censuses was less what the people called themselves by nationality than what language they claimed as their native tongue. Thus, people who called themselves "Turk" but spoke Uzbek were classified in Soviet censuses as Uzbek by nationality.[64]
- ^ This contrasts to the Hui people, called Huihui or "Hui" (Muslim) by the Chinese and the Salar people, called "Sala Hui" (Salar Muslims) by the Chinese. Use of the term "Chan Tou Hui" was considered a demeaning slur.[105]
- ^ "Soon the great chief Julumohe and the Kirghiz gathered a hundred thousand riders to attack the Uyghur city; they killed the Kaghan, executed Jueluowu, and burnt the royal camp. All the tribes were scattered – its ministers Sazhi and Pang Tele with fifteen clans fled to the Karluks, the remaining multitude went to Tibet and Anxi." (Chinese: 俄而渠長句錄莫賀與黠戛斯合騎十萬攻回鶻城,殺可汗,誅掘羅勿,焚其牙,諸部潰其相馺職與厖特勒十五部奔葛邏祿,殘眾入吐蕃、安西。)[186]
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- Attribution
- This article incorporates text from The Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures, by Edward Balfour, a publication from 1885, now in the public domain in the United States.
Further reading
Library resources about Uyghurs |
- Chinese Cultural Studies: Ethnography of China: Brief Guide acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu
- ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2.
- ISBN 978-974-480-062-6.
- Bovingdon, Gardner (2018). The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land. Brill. ISBN 9780231147583.
- Brophy, David (2016). Uyghur Nation: Reform and Revolution on the Russia-China Frontier. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674660373.
- Eden, Jeff (2018). Warrior Saints of the Silk Road: Legends of the Qarakhanids. Brill. ISBN 9789004384279.
- Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517726-6(pbk.)
- Grose, Timothy (2020). Negotiating Inseparability in China: The Xinjiang Class and the Dynamics of Uyghur Identity. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 9789888528097.
- Hessler, Peter. Oracle Bones: A Journey Through Time in China. New York: Harper Perennial, 2006.
- Hierman, Brent (June 2007). "The Pacification of Xinjiang: Uighur Protest and the Chinese State, 1988-2002". Problems of Post-Communism. 54 (3): 48–62. S2CID 154942905.
- Human Rights in China: China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions, London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007
- Kaltman, Blaine (2007). Under the Heel of the Dragon: Islam, Racism, Crime, and the Uighur in China. Athens: ISBN 978-0-89680-254-4.
- Kamberi, Dolkun. 2005. Uyghurs and Uyghur identity. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 150. Philadelphia, PA: Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.
- Millward, James A. and Nabijan Tursun, (2004) "Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884–1978" in Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland, ed. S. Frederick Starr. Published by M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1318-9.
- Rall, Ted. Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East? New York: NBM Publishing, 2006.
- Roberts, Sean (2020). The War on the Uyghurs: China's Internal Campaign Against a Muslim Minority. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691202211.
- Rudelson, Justin Ben-Adam, Oasis identities: Uyghur nationalism along China's Silk Road, New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
- Thum, Rian. The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History (Harvard University Press; 2014) 323 pages
- Tyler, Christian. (2003). Wild West China: The Untold Story of a Frontier Land. John Murray, London. ISBN 0-7195-6341-0.
External links
- Map share of ethnic by county of China (archived 1 January 2016)
- Xinjiang Video Project on Internet Archive