Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
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1919–1991 | |||||||
Flag
(1950–1991) State emblem
(1949–1991) | |||||||
Motto: Пролетарі всіх країн, єднайтеся! ( | |||||||
Demonym(s) | Ukrainian, Soviet | ||||||
Government | 1919–1990: Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party Soviet socialist republic 1990–1991: Unitary multi-party parliamentary republic | ||||||
First Secretary | |||||||
• 1918–1919 (first) | Emanuel Kviring | ||||||
• 1990 (last)[8] | Stanislav Hurenko | ||||||
Head of state | |||||||
• 1919–1938 (first) | Grigory Petrovsky | ||||||
• 1990–1991 (last) | Leonid Kravchuk | ||||||
Head of government | |||||||
• 1918–1919 (first) | Georgy Pyatakov | ||||||
• 1988–1991 (last) | Vitold Fokin | ||||||
Legislature | Ratification of agreement to dissolve the Soviet Union | 10 December 1991 | |||||
• Dissolution of the Soviet Union (Ukraine's independence formally recognized) | 26 December 1991 | ||||||
• Full abolition of the Soviet form of government | 28 June 1996 | ||||||
Area | |||||||
• Total | 603,700 km2 (233,100 sq mi) | ||||||
Population | |||||||
• 1989 census | 51,706,746 | ||||||
HDI (1990) | 0.725 high | ||||||
Currency | Soviet ruble (руб) (SUR) | ||||||
Calling code | +7 03/04/05/06 | ||||||
Internet TLD | .su | ||||||
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History of Ukraine |
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Ukraine portal |
The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Ukrainian: Українська Радянська Соціалістична Республіка, romanized: Ukrainska Radianska Sotsialistychna Respublika;[note 1] Russian: Украинская Советская Социалистическая Республика[note 2]), abbreviated as the Ukrainian SSR, UkSSR, and also known as Soviet Ukraine or just Ukraine,[11][12][13] was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1991.[14] Under the Soviet one-party model, the Ukrainian SSR was governed by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union through its republican branch, the Communist Party of Ukraine.
The first iterations of the Ukrainian SSR were established during the
Throughout its 72-year history, the republic's borders changed many times, with a general trend toward acquiring lands with ethnic Ukrainian population majority, and losing lands with other ethnic majorities. A significant portion of what is now western Ukraine was gained via the Soviet-German Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, with the annexation of Eastern Galicia and Volhynia in 1939, significant portions of Romania in 1940, and Carpathian Ruthenia in Czechoslovakia in 1945. From the 1919 establishment of the Ukrainian SSR until 1934, the city of Kharkov served as its capital; however, the republic's seat of government was subsequently relocated in 1934 to the city of Kiev, the historic Ukrainian capital, and remained at Kiev for the remainder of its existence.
Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in
Name
Eastern Bloc |
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Its original names in 1919 were both Ukraine
The name Ukraine (
Within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the name carried unofficial status for larger part of Kiev Voivodeship.
"The Ukraine" used to be the usual form in English,
History
After the abdication of Tsar
The conflict between the two competing governments, known as the Ukrainian–Soviet War, was part of the ongoing Russian Civil War, as well as a struggle for national independence (known as the Ukrainian War of Independence), which ended with the territory of pro-independence Ukrainian People's Republic being annexed into a new Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic, western Ukraine being annexed into the Second Polish Republic, and the newly stable Ukrainian SSR becoming a founding member of the Soviet Union.
The government of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917. In its publications, it named itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies[30] or the Ukrainian People's Republic of Soviets.[24] The 1917 republic was only recognised by another non-recognised country, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. With the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty by Russia, it was ultimately defeated by mid-1918 and eventually dissolved. The last session of the government took place in the Russian city of Taganrog.
In July 1918, the former members of the government formed the Communist Party (Bolsheviks) of Ukraine, the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow. With the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, the Bolsheviks resumed its hostilities towards the Ukrainian People's Republic fighting for Ukrainian independence and organised another Soviet Ukrainian government. On 10 March 1919, the Third All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets ratified the constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.[31]
Founding: 1917–1922
After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, alternately cooperating and struggling against each other. Numerous more or less socialist-oriented factions participated in the formation of the Ukrainian People's Republic among which were Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, Socialists-Revolutionaries and many others. The most popular faction was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks.
Immediately after the
After re-taking Kharkov in February 1919, a second Soviet Ukrainian government was formed. The government enforced Russian policies that did not adhere to local needs. A group of three thousand workers were dispatched from Russia to take grain from local farms to feed Russian cities and were met with resistance. The Ukrainian language was also censured from administrative and educational use. Eventually fighting both White forces in the east and Ukrainian forces in the west, Lenin ordered the liquidation of the second Soviet Ukrainian government in August 1919.[32]
Eventually, after the creation of the
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Bolshevik commissars in Ukraine (1919).
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Territories claimed by the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920).
-
Boundaries of the Ukrainian SSR (1922).
-
Soviet Russia in Europe.
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Draft constitution of the Soviet Union (1937).
Interwar years: 1922–1939
During the 1920s, a policy of
In 1932, the aggressive agricultural policies of Joseph Stalin's regime resulted in one of the largest national catastrophes in the modern history for the Ukrainian nation. A famine known as the Holodomor caused a direct loss of human life estimated between 2.6 million[34][35] to 10 million.[36] Some scholars and the World Congress of Free Ukrainians assert that this was an act of genocide.[citation needed] The International Commission of Inquiry Into the 1932–1933 Famine in Ukraine found no evidence that the famine was part of a preconceived plan to starve Ukrainians, and concluded in 1990 that the famine was caused by a combination of factors, including Soviet policies of compulsory grain requisitions, forced collectivization, dekulakization, and Russification.[37] The General Assembly of the UN has stopped shy of recognizing the Holodomor as genocide, calling it a "great tragedy" as a compromise between tense positions of United Kingdom, United States, Russia, and Ukraine on the matter, while some nations went on to individually categorize it as genocide, including France, Germany, and the United States after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
World War II: 1939–1945
In September 1939, the
Post-war years: 1945–1953
While World War II (called the Great Patriotic War by the Soviet government) did not end before May 1945, the Germans were driven out of Ukraine between February 1943 and October 1944. The first task of the Soviet authorities was to reestablish political control over the republic which had been entirely lost during the war. This was an immense task, considering the widespread human and material losses. During World War II the Soviet Union lost about 8.6 million combatants and around 18 million civilians, of these, 6.8 million were Ukrainian civilians and military personnel. Also, an estimated 3.9 million Ukrainians were evacuated to the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic during the war, and 2.2 million Ukrainians were sent to forced labour camps by the Germans.[citation needed]
The material devastation was huge;
While the war brought to Ukraine an enormous physical destruction, victory also led to territorial expansion. As a victor, the Soviet Union gained new prestige and more land. The Ukrainian border was expanded to the Curzon Line. Ukraine was also expanded southwards, near the area Izmail, previously part of Romania.[40] An agreement was signed by the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia whereby Carpathian Ruthenia was handed over to Ukraine.[41] The territory of Ukraine expanded by 167,000 square kilometres (64,500 sq mi) and increased its population by an estimated 11 million.[42]
After World War II, amendments to the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR were accepted, which allowed it to act as a separate subject of international law in some cases and to a certain extent, remaining a part of the Soviet Union at the same time. In particular, these amendments allowed the Ukrainian SSR to become one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN) together with the Soviet Union and the Byelorussian SSR. This was part of a deal with the United States to ensure a degree of balance in the General Assembly, which, the USSR opined, was unbalanced in favor of the Western Bloc. In its capacity as a member of the UN, the Ukrainian SSR was an elected member of the United Nations Security Council in 1948–1949 and 1984–1985.[citation needed]
Khrushchev and Brezhnev: 1953–1985
When Stalin died on 5 March 1953, the
The
In October 1964, Khrushchev was deposed by a joint Central Committee and Politburo plenum and succeeded by another collective leadership, this time led by
Gorbachev and dissolution: 1985–1991
Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost (English: restructuring and openness) failed to reach Ukraine as early as other Soviet republics because of Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, a conservative communist appointed by Brezhnev and the First Secretary of the Ukrainian Communist Party, who resigned from his post in 1989.[54] The Chernobyl disaster of 1986, the russification policies, and the apparent social and economic stagnation led several Ukrainians to oppose Soviet rule. Gorbachev's policy of perestroika was also never introduced into practice, 95 percent of industry and agriculture was still owned by the Soviet state in 1990. The talk of reform, but the lack of introducing reform into practice, led to confusion which in turn evolved into opposition to the Soviet state itself.[55] The policy of glasnost, which ended state censorship, led the Ukrainian diaspora to reconnect with their compatriots in Ukraine, the revitalisation of religious practices by destroying the monopoly of the Russian Orthodox Church and led to the establishment of several opposition pamphlets, journals and newspapers.[56]
Following the failed
A week after Kravchuk's victory, on 8 December, he and his Russian and Belarusian counterparts signed the
Politics and government
The Ukrainian SSR's system of government was based on a
Originally, the legislative authority was vested in the
Full
With the beginning of Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika reforms towards the mid-late 1980s, electoral reform laws were passed in 1989, liberalising the nominating procedures and allowing multiple candidates to stand for election in a district. Accordingly, the first relatively free elections[60] in the Ukrainian SSR were contested in March 1990. 111 deputies from the Democratic Bloc, a loose association of small pro-Ukrainian and pro-sovereignty parties and the instrumental People's Movement of Ukraine (colloquially known as Rukh in Ukrainian) were elected to the parliament.[61] Although the Communist Party retained its majority with 331 deputies, large support for the Democratic Bloc demonstrated the people's distrust of the Communist authorities, which would eventually boil down to Ukrainian independence in 1991.
Ukraine is the legal successor of the Ukrainian SSR and it stated to fulfill "those rights and duties pursuant to international agreements of Union SSR which do not contradict the
Foreign relations
On the international front, the Ukrainian SSR, along with the rest of the 15 republics, had virtually no say in their own foreign affairs. It is, however, important to note that in 1944 the Ukrainian SSR was permitted to establish bilateral relations with countries and maintain its own standing army.[58] This clause was used to permit the republic's membership in the United Nations, alongside the Byelorussian SSR. Accordingly, representatives from the "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic" and 50 other states founded the UN on 24 October 1945. In effect, this provided the Soviet Union (a permanent Security Council member with veto powers) with another two votes in the General Assembly.[note 4] The latter aspect of the 1944 clauses, however, was never fulfilled and the republic's defense matters were managed by the Soviet Armed Forces and the Defense Ministry. Another right that was granted but never used until 1991 was the right of the Soviet republics to secede from the union,[64] which was codified in each of the Soviet constitutions. Accordingly, Article 69 of the Constitution of the Ukrainian SSR stated: "The Ukrainian SSR retains the right to willfully secede from the USSR."[65] However, a republic's theoretical secession from the union was virtually impossible and unrealistic[58] in many ways until after Gorbachev's perestroika reforms.
The Ukrainian SSR was a member of the UN Economic and Social Council, UNICEF, International Labour Organization, Universal Postal Union, World Health Organization, UNESCO, International Telecommunication Union, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, World Intellectual Property Organization and the International Atomic Energy Agency. It was not separately a member of the Warsaw Pact, Comecon, the World Federation of Trade Unions and the World Federation of Democratic Youth, and since 1949, the International Olympic Committee.
Administrative divisions
Legally, the Soviet Union and its fifteen union republics constituted a
The most common administrative division was the oblast (province), of which there were 25 upon the republic's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Provinces were further subdivided into raions (districts) which numbered 490. The rest of the administrative division within the provinces consisted of cities, urban-type settlements, and villages. Cities in the Ukrainian SSR were a separate exception, which could either be subordinate to either the provincial authorities themselves or the district authorities of which they were the administrative center. Two cities, the capital Kiev, and Sevastopol (which hosted a large Soviet Navy base in Crimea), were uniquely designated "cities with special status." This meant that they were directly subordinate to the central Ukrainian SSR authorities and not the provincial authorities surrounding them.
Historical formation
However, the history of administrative divisions in the republic was not so clear cut. At the end of
During the 1930s, there were significant numbers of ethnic minorities living within the Ukrainian SSR. National Districts were formed as separate territorial-administrative units within higher-level provincial authorities. Districts were established for the republic's three largest minority groups, which were the Jews,
Upon signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Nazi Germany and Soviet Union partitioned Poland and its Eastern Borderlands were secured by the Soviet buffer republics with Ukraine securing the territory of Eastern Galicia. The Soviet September Polish campaign in Soviet propaganda was portrayed as the Golden September for Ukrainians, given the unification of Ukrainian lands on both banks of Zbruch River, until then the border between the Soviet Union and the Polish communities inhabited by Ukrainian speaking families.
Economy
Before 1945
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After 1945
Agriculture
In 1945, agricultural production stood at only 40 percent of the 1940 level, even though the republic's territorial expansion had "increased the amount of
The increase of
Industry
During the post-war years, Ukraine's industrial productivity doubled its pre-war level.[73] In 1945 industrial output totalled only 26 percent of the 1940 level. The Soviet Union introduced the Fourth Five-Year Plan in 1946. The Fourth Five-Year Plan would prove to be a remarkable success, and can be likened to the "wonders of West German and Japanese reconstruction", but without foreign capital; the Soviet reconstruction is historically an impressive achievement. In 1950 industrial gross output had already surpassed 1940-levels. While the Soviet régime still emphasised heavy industry over light industry, the light-industry sector also grew. The increase in capital investment and the expansion of the labour force also benefited Ukraine's economic recovery.[69] In the prewar years, 15.9 percent of the Soviet budget went to Ukraine, in 1950, during the Fourth Five-Year Plan this had increased to 19.3 percent. The workforce had increased from 1.2 million in 1945 to 2.9 million in 1955; an increase of 33.2 percent over the 1940-level.[69] The result of this remarkable growth was that by 1955 Ukraine was producing 2.2 times more than in 1940, and the republic had become one of the leading producers of certain commodities in Europe. Ukraine was the largest per-capita producer in Europe of pig iron and sugar, and the second-largest per-capita producer of steel and of iron ore, and was the third largest per-capita producer of coal in Europe.[71]
From 1965 until the
The urbanisation of Ukrainian society in the post-war years led to an increase in
Religion
Many churches and synagogues were destroyed during the existence of the Ukrainian SSR.[75]
Urbanization
Urbanisation in post-Stalin Ukraine grew quickly; in 1959 only 25 cities in Ukraine had populations over one hundred thousand, by 1979 the number had grown to 49. During the same period, the growth of cities with a population over one million increased from one to five; Kiev alone nearly doubled its population, from 1.1 million in 1959 to 2.1 million in 1979. This proved a turning point in Ukrainian society: for the first time in Ukraine's history, the majority of ethnic Ukrainians lived in urban areas; 53 percent of the ethnic Ukrainian population did so in 1979. The majority worked in the non-agricultural sector, in 1970 31 percent of Ukrainians engaged in agriculture, in contrast, 63 percent of Ukrainians were industrial workers and white-collar staff. In 1959, 37 percent of Ukrainians lived in urban areas, in 1989 the proportion had increased to 60 percent.[76]
Notes
References
Citations
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- 1919–1936: Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic (Українська Соціалістична Радянська Республіка; Украинская Социалистическая Советская Республика)
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- ^ a b Magocsi 2010, p. 722.
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- ^ Magocsi 1996, pp. 684–685.
- ^ a b Magocsi 1996, p. 685.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 687.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 688.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 701.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, pp. 702–703.
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- ^ a b Magocsi 1996, p. 708.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, pp. 708–709.
- ^ a b Magocsi 1996, p. 709.
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- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 715.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 717.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, pp. 718–719.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, pp. 720–721.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 724.
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- ^ Subtelny 2000, p. 576.
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- ^ a b Magocsi 1996, p. 693.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 706.
- ^ a b Magocsi 1996, p. 705.
- ^ Compare: Magocsi 2010, "Post-Stalinist Soviet Ukraine" p. 706. "[...] the Soviet Union launched an intensive nuclear power program in the 1970s. This resulted in the construction in Soviet Ukraine of four nuclear power plants – near Chernobyl' (1979), at Kuznetsovs'k north of Rivne (1979), at Konstantynivka north of Mykolaiv (1982) and at Enerhodar on the Kakhovka Reservoir (1984) – and in plans for four more plants by the end of the decade. As a result of these efforts, Soviet Ukraine had clearly developed diverse sources of energy for its expanded industrial infrastructure during the six Five-Year Plans that were carried out between 1955 and 1985."
- ^ The Rise of Russia and the Fall of the Soviet Empire, John B. Dunlop, p. 140.
- ^ Magocsi 1996, p. 713.
Sources
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- Armstrong, John A. The Soviet Bureaucratic Elite: A Case Study of the Ukrainian Apparatus Archived 30 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine (New York: Praeger, 1959).
- Dmytryshyn, Basil. Moscow and the Ukraine, 1918–1953: A Study of Russian Bolshevik Nationality Policy Archived 29 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine (New York: Bookman Associates, 1956).
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- ISBN 978-1-4426-1021-7. Archivedfrom the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
- Manning, Clarence A. Ukraine under the Soviets Archived 29 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine (New York: Bookman Associates, 1953).
- ISBN 9780802083906.
- Sullivant, Robert S. Soviet Politics and the Ukraine, 1917–1957 Archived 28 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962).
Further reading
External links
- "Governments of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic". Government portal. Retrieved 11 June 2008.
- "Constitution of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic". Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine (in Ukrainian). 1978. Retrieved 11 June 2008.