Ukrainization
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Ukrainization (also spelled Ukrainisation;
A major early case of Ukrainization relates to the
After the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine in 1991, the government of Ukraine began following a policy of Ukrainization,[1] to increase the use of Ukrainian while discouraging Russian, which has been gradually phased out from the country's education system,[2] government,[3] and national TV, radio programmes, and films.[citation needed] Until 2017, the law "On Education" granted Ukrainian families (parents and their children) a right to choose their native language for schools and studies.[4][5] This law was revised to make the Ukrainian language the primary language of education in all schools, except for children of ethnic minorities, who are to be taught in their own language and later on bilingual.[5][6]
In Western historiography, the term Ukrainization refers also to a policy and resulting process of forcing ethnic minorities living on Ukrainian territories to abandon their ethnic identity by means of the enforced assimilation of Ukrainian culture and identity. During the aftermath of World War II, in the Ukrainian SSR this process had been preceded by the expulsion of some ethnic minorities[7][8] and appropriation of their cultural heritage.[9][10] "Ukrainization" is also used in the context of these acts.
1917–1923: times after the Russian Revolution
Following the
As the Rada was eventually overthrown in a German-backed coup (April 29, 1918), the rule of a
The Hetmanate's rule ended with the German evacuation and was replaced by the
1923–1931: early years of Soviet Ukraine
As
Until the early-1930s, Ukrainian culture enjoyed a widespread revival due to Bolshevik policies known as the policy of
The All-Ukrainian
The Soviet-backed education system dramatically raised the literacy of the Ukrainophone rural population. By 1929 over 97% of high school students in the republic were obtaining their education in Ukrainian[13] and illiteracy dropped from 47% (1926) to 8% in 1934.[14]
Simultaneously, the newly literate ethnic Ukrainians migrated to the cities, which became rapidly largely Ukrainianized — in both population and education. Between 1923 and 1933 the Ukrainian proportion of the population of
Similarly expansive was an increase in Ukrainian language publishing and the overall flourishing of Ukrainian cultural life. As of 1931 out of 88 theatres in Ukraine, 66 were Ukrainian, 12 were Jewish (Yiddish) and 9 were Russian. The number of Ukrainian newspapers, which almost did not exist in 1922, had reached 373 out of 426, while only 3 all-republican large newspapers remained Russian. Of 118 magazines, 89 were Ukrainian. Ukrainization of book-publishing reached 83%.[14]
Ukrainization was thoroughly implemented through the government apparatus,
Year | Communist Party members and candidates to membership |
Ukrainians | Russians | Others |
---|---|---|---|---|
1922 | 54,818 | 23.3% | 53.6% | 23.3% |
1924 | 57,016 | 33.3% | 45.1% | 14.0% |
1925 | 101,852 | 36.9% | 43.4% | 19.7% |
1927 | 168,087 | 51.9% | 30.0% | 18.1% |
1930 | 270,698 | 52.9% | 29.3% | 17.8% |
1933 | 468,793 | 60.0% | 23.0% | 17.0% |
In the all-Ukrainian
The attempted Ukrainization of the armed forces,
At the same time, despite the ongoing Soviet-wide anti-religious campaign, the Ukrainian national Orthodox Church was created, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church (See History of Christianity in Ukraine). The Bolshevik government initially saw the national churches as a tool in their goal to suppress the Russian Orthodox Church, always viewed with great suspicion by the regime for its being the cornerstone of the defunct Russian Empire and the initially strong opposition it took towards the regime change. Therefore, the government tolerated the new Ukrainian national church for some time and the UAOC gained a wide following among the Ukrainian peasantry.[citation needed]
Ukrainization even reached those regions of southern
Early 1930s: reversal of Ukrainization policies
Starting from the early 1930s, the Ukrainization policies were abruptly and bloodily reversed. "Ukrainian bourgeois nationalism" was declared to be the primary problem in Ukraine. Many Ukrainian newspapers, publications, and schools were switched to Russian. The vast majority of leading scholars and cultural leaders of Ukraine were purged, as were the "Ukrainianized" and "Ukrainianizing" portions of the Communist party. Major repression started in 1929–30, when a large group of Ukrainian intelligentsia was arrested and most were executed. In Ukrainian history, this group is often referred to as "Executed Renaissance" (Ukrainian: розстріляне відродження). The terror peaked in 1933 during the Holodomor, four to five years before the Soviet-wide "Great Purge", which, for Ukraine, was a second blow. The vast majority of leading scholars and cultural leaders of Ukraine were liquidated, as were the "Ukrainianized" and "Ukrainianizing" portions of the Communist party.[citation needed]
At the 12th Congress of the
In the regions of southern Russian SFSR (
1930s to mid-1980
The Communist Party of Ukraine, under the guidance of state officials like Lazar Kaganovich, Stanisław Kosior, and Pavel Postyshev, boasted in early 1934 of the elimination of "counter-revolutionaries, nationalists, spies and class enemies". Whole academic organizations, such as the Bahaliy Institute of History and Culture, were shut down following the arrests.[citation needed]
In 1935–36, 83% of all school children in the Ukrainian SSR were taught in Ukrainian even though Ukrainians made up about 80% of the population.[20] In 1936 from 1830 newspapers 1402 were in Ukrainian, as were 177 magazines, in 1936 69,104 thousand Ukrainian books were printed.[21]
In the following fifty years the Soviet policies towards the Ukrainian language mostly varied between quiet discouragement and suppression to persecution and cultural purges, with the notable exception for the decade of
Post-1991: independent Ukraine
On 28 October 1989, the
Adopted in 1996, the new Constitution of Ukraine confirmed the official state status of the Ukrainian language, and guaranteed the free development, use, and protection of Russian and other languages of national minorities of Ukraine.[24]
Language issues are still used by politicians to generate controversy. On May 20, 2008, Donetsk city council passed a resolution limiting the expansion of Ukrainian-language education in the city. The following day the city prosecutor declared the decision illegal and the mayor suspended it, and the council reversed itself two days later.[25]
According to a March 2010 survey, forced Ukrainization and Russian language suppression are among the least troubling problems for Ukrainian citizens, concerning only 4.8% of population.[26]
Educational system
Year | Ukrainian | Russian |
---|---|---|
1991 | 45% | 54% |
1996 | 60% | 39.2% |
1997 | 62.7% | 36.5% |
1998 | 65% | 34.4% |
1999 | 67.5% | 31.8% |
2000 | 70.3% | 28.9% |
2001 | 72.5% | 26.6% |
2002 | 73.8% | 25.3% |
2003–2004 | 75.1% | 23.9% |
The government of independent Ukraine implemented policies to broaden the use of Ukrainian and mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. The most significant was the government's concerted effort to implement Ukrainian, as the only official state language in the country, into the state educational system. Despite the Constitution, the Law on Education (grants Ukrainian families (parents and their children) a right to choose their native language for schools and studies[4]) as well as the Law of Languages (a guarantee for the protection of all languages in Ukraine) the education system gradually reshaped from a system that was only partly Ukrainian to the one that is overwhelmingly so. The Russian language is still studied as a required course in all secondary schools, including those with Ukrainian as the primary language of instructions.[28] The number of secondary school students who received their primary education in Ukrainian grew from 47.9% in 1990–1991[29] (the last school year before Ukrainian independence) to 67.4% in 1999[30] and to 75.1% by 2003–2004 (see table). Ukrainization has achieved even greater gains in higher education institutions where as of 1990–1991 only 7% of students were being taught primarily in Ukrainian.[29] By 2003–2004 the percentage of college and technicum students studying in Ukrainian reached 87.7% and for the students of the university-level institutions this number reached 80.1% (see table).
The extent of educational institutions' Ukrainization varies in the different regions of Ukraine. In the 16 western
Institutions of lower accreditation levels (colleges and technicums) |
University level institutions of the highest accreditation levels | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Year | Ukrainian | Russian | Ukrainian | Russian |
2000–2001 | 78% | 22% | 73.4% | 26.5% |
2001–2002 | 80% | 20% | 76.3% | 23.6% |
2002–2003 | 81.8% | 18.2% | 77.8% | 22.1% |
2003–2004 | 83.4% | 16.6% | 78.7% | 21.2% |
2004–2005 | 87.7% | 12.3% | 80.1% | 19.9% |
The increase of the share of secondary school students obtaining education in Ukrainian (from 47.9% to 67%) over the first decade of the Ukrainian independence roughly corresponded to the share of native Ukrainian speakers - 67.5%.[33] Schools continue to be transferred to the Ukrainian language up to this day. At the end of the 1990s, about 50% of professional school students, 62% of college students and 67% of university students (cf. 7% in 1991) studied in Ukrainian[13][34] and in the following five years the number increased even further (see table).
In some cases, the changing of the language of instruction in institutions, led to the charges of assimilation, raised mostly by the Russian-speaking population. Despite this, the transition was gradual and lacked many controversies that surrounded the
2017 law "On Education"
On September 25, 2017, a new law on education was signed by the President (draft approved by the
The law was condemned by
In January 2020 the law was changed and made it legal to teach "one or more disciplines" in "two or more languages – in the official state language, in English, in another official languages of the European Union".[44] All not state funded schools were made free to choose their own language of instruction.[44]
According to the 2020 law until the fifth year of education all lessons can be completely thought in the minority language without mandatory teaching of subjects in Ukrainian.[44] In the fifth year not less than 20% of the lessons must be taught in Ukrainian.[44] Then every year the volume of teaching in the state language (Ukrainian) should increase, reaching 40% in the ninth grade.[44] In the twelfth and final year at least 60% of education should be taught in Ukrainian.[44]
The 2017 language education law stipulated a 3-year transitional period to come in full effect.[5][41] In February 2018, this period was extended until 2023.[45] In June 2023 this period was again extended to September 2024.[46]
Since the introduction of the 2017 language law Hungary–Ukraine relations have greatly deteriorated over the issue of the Hungarian minority in Ukraine.[47] Hungary is since 2017 blocking Ukraine's attempt to integrate within the EU and NATO to help the Hungarian minority in Ukraine.[48]
2023 changes to national minorities' language rights
On 8 December 2022, the Ukrainian parliament passed a bill that amend some laws on the rights of national minorities in light of the Council of Europe’s expert assessment and in order to meet one of the European Commission’s criteria for the opening of EU membership negotiations.[49] These changes gave the right to privately-owned institutions of higher education to have the right to freely choose the language of study if it is an official language of the European Union, while ensuring that persons studying at such institutions study the state language Ukrainian as a separate academic discipline; it guaranteed that national minorities whose language is an official languages of the European Union the right to use the language of the corresponding national minority in the educational process along with the state language and it ensured that pupils who had begun their general secondary education before 1 September 2018 in the language of the corresponding national minority, will have the right to continue to receive such education until the completion of their full secondary education in accordance with the rules that applied before the Law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" came into force on 16 July 2019.[49][50]
Mass media
Since 2004 the Ukrainian government has enacted restrictions on Russian-language television and radio programmes.[51] Russian-language programmes are required to include a Ukrainian translation or subtitles,[51] and local radio and television stations have the right to broadcast in Russian only if they can prove they have a Russian audience.[51] There was some opposition against this ban.[51] Today the ban is in full effect, but Russian movies are mostly subtitled in cinemas and on Ukrainian television. Non-Russian and non-Ukrainian movies which used to be dubbed in Russian may now only be dubbed, post-synchronized or subtitled in Ukrainian.[52][53] Ukrainian authorities defended the ban, stating that it aimed to develop a home-grown Ukrainian distribution industry and to give Ukrainian distributors "muscle" in negotiating their own deals to buy foreign films.[54] Russian distributors control around 90% of foreign films screened in Ukraine and tend to supply Russian-language dubbed or subtitled copies that are part of wider packages distributed throughout Russia and the former Soviet territories. Andriy Khalpakhchi, director the Ukrainian Cinema Foundation, claims "Some European sellers at Berlin's film market are reporting that Russian buyers are already threatening not to buy films if they sell directly to Ukraine without using Russian distribution channels."[54] Despite earlier fears that there would be problems due to the introduction of compulsory Ukrainian dubbing of films, the number of visitors to Ukrainian cinemas soared by 40% in Q1 of the year 2009 compared to the same period of the previous year.[55]
Several
On 13 May 2010,
On 23 May 2017, Ukrainian parliament approved the law proposed in November 2016 that demands national, regional, satellite, and multi-channel TV and radio networks to broadcast at least 75% of their content (summarized on weekly basis separately in time intervals 7 am – 6 pm and 6 pm – 10 pm) in Ukrainian starting from 13 October 2017. 50% is required from local networks, and 75% of news programs is required in Ukrainian for all networks. Films and broadcasts which are not products of these networks and produced after 1991 must be broadcast exclusively in Ukrainian. Reasonable exceptions are provided for inclusion of non-Ukrainian language into otherwise Ukrainian-language broadcasts. The
Politics
In two presidential elections, in 1994 and 2004, the role of languages in Ukraine was an important election issue. In 1994 the main opposition candidate, Leonid Kuchma, in an attempt to widen his political appeal, expressed his support for the idea of Russian becoming the second state language, as well as promising to improve his knowledge of the Ukrainian language. In addition to the stagnating economy, the language issue likely contributed to Kuchma's victory in the election; but while his knowledge of Ukrainian noticeably improved, Kuchma did not follow through on his pledge to make Russian a state language during the 10 years of his presidency.[citation needed]
In 2004 an election promise by Viktor Yanukovych (leader of the Party of Regions) to adopt Russian as the second official language might also have increased the turnout of his base, but it was rebutted during the campaign by his opponent (Viktor Yushchenko), who pointed out that Yanukovych could have already taken steps towards this change while he was a Prime Minister of Ukraine if this had really been his priority. During his campaign Yushchenko emphasized that his being painted as a proponent of the closure of Russian schools frequently made by his opponents is entirely baseless and stated his view that the issue of school language, as well as the churches, should be left to local communities.[64] Nevertheless, during Yuchshenko's presidency the transfer of educational institutions from Russian to Ukrainian continued.[65][66][67]
In the
In the wake of the
During the
Law
According to the laws on civil and administrative procedure enacted in Ukraine in 2005, all legal and court proceedings in Ukraine are to be conducted in Ukrainian. This does not restrict, however, the usage of other languages, as the law guarantees interpretation services for any language desired by a citizen, defendant or witness.[citation needed]
Historical and political calendar
The 2017 abolition of May 2 as public holiday (as it was in the
See also
- Belarusization
- Language policy in Ukraine
- Reversal of Ukrainization policies in Soviet Ukraine
- Russian language in Ukraine
- Russians in Ukraine
- Ukrainian nationalism
- Ukrainophilia
- Derussification in Ukraine
- Volhynian Genocide
- Chronology of Ukrainian language suppression
References
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- ^ Volodymyr Malynkovych, Ukrainian perspective, Politicheskiy Klass, January, 2006. "Людей фактически лишают права получать образование и реализовывать свой потенциал на русском языке, родном для каждого третьего украинца, для большинства жителей Левобережья. В Центральной и Западной Украине практически не осталось русских школ. В 16 областях из 13000 школ только 26 русские (0,2%). Даже в Киеве русских школ почти не осталось - 6 из 452. Еще хуже ситуация с вузами - в 19 областях нет ни одного вуза с преподаванием на русском языке. В украинских же школах русская литература включена в курс зарубежной литературы, и Гоголя дети должны читать в переводе на украинский. По сути, только в Донбассе и в Крыму сохраняется полноценное русское образование." [In practice, they deprive people of the right to receive their education and to realize their potential in the Russian language, which is the native tongue of every third Ukrainian, and the native tongue for the majority of the inhabitants of Left-Bank Ukraine. In Central and Western Ukraine practically no Russian schools remain. In 16 oblasts [of the 24 Ukrainian oblasts], out of 13,000 schools only 26 are Russian (0.2%). Even in Kyiv almost no Russian schools remain: 6 out of the 452. The situation with tertiary education is even worse: in 19 oblasts there is not a single tertiary institution with instruction carried out in the Russian language. And in Ukrainian schools Russian literature is included in the syllabus for foreign literature, and children must read Gogol in Ukrainian translation. In fact, only in the Donbas and in the Crimea is a proper Russian education preserved.]
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- ^ (in Ukrainian)"The campaign was implemented in 35 raions of the Russian Republic [Stavropol, Krasnodar (Kuban), Republic of Karachaev-Cherkessiya] most of which still exist to this day."Oleksandr Tereshchenko (December 2004). "Ukrainian renaissance in the south of Russia". Cultural connections of Donetsk region with the Ukrainian Diaspora. Archived from the original on 2006-05-26.
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Encyclopedia of Ukrainian studies) cited above - ^ See highlights in English
- ^ According to the Article 10 Archived 2011-05-21 at the Wayback Machine of the Constitution: "The state language of Ukraine is the Ukrainian language. The State ensures the comprehensive development and functioning of the Ukrainian language in all spheres of social life throughout the entire territory of Ukraine. In Ukraine, the free development, use and protection of Russian, and other languages of national minorities of Ukraine, is guaranteed."
- ^ "Donetsk City Council Cancels Resolution Restricting Use Of Ukrainian Language In Educational Establishments". Ukrainian News Agency. May 26, 2008. Archived from the original on 2012-09-18.
- ^ "Українізація та мовне питання турбують українців найменше - опитування | Українська правда _Життя". Archived from the original on 2010-04-14. Retrieved 2010-04-12.
- ^ a b c The data were prepared by the International Institute of Humanitarian and Political Studies (Russia) based on the statistical data published by the Ministry of Science and Education of Ukraine, 2001–2004.
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- ^ a b See Ivanyshyn, cited above
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"Annual Report of the Ukrainian Parliament Commissioner for Human Rights “On the situation with observance and protection of human rights and freedoms in Ukraine” for the period from April 14, 1998 till December 31, 1999" Archived May 2, 2006, at the Wayback Machine - ^ "In Central and Western Ukraine there are practically no Russian schools left. In 16 oblasts out of 13,000 schools, 26 are Russian (0.2%). In Kyiv there are almost no Russian schools left: six out of 452. The situation in higher education is even worse. In 19 oblasts there is not a single institution with the instruction in Russian. In Ukrainian schools, Russian literature is included in the international literature course and children have to learn Gogol in the Ukrainian translation. Only in Donbas and the Crimea is the full-fledged Russian education preserved."
Volodymyr Malynkovych (January 2006). "Ukrainian perspective". Politicheskiy Klass. - Zerkalo Nedeli. April 29 – May 12, 2006.. Available online in Russian Archived 2007-02-17 at the Wayback Machine and in Ukrainian Archived 2007-02-17 at the Wayback Machine
- Ukrainian Census (2001).
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- The Jamestown Foundation, May 24, 2006
- ^ a b The new Ukrainian law on education: a major impediment to the teaching of national minorities' mother tongues
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{{cite web}}
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(help)|title=
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"Hungary-Ukraine relations hit new low over troop deployment". New Europe. 26 March 2018. - ^ Kentish, Portia (March 12, 2020). "Hungary and Ukraine continue war of words over minority rights". Emerging Europe | Intelligence, Community, News.
"Hungary PM criticizes Ukraine, says no rush to ratify Sweden's NATO bid". Reuters. 25 September 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2023. - ^ a b "Ukraine's Parliament approves changes to national minorities' rights required for EU membership talks". Ukrainska Pravda. December 2023. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
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Number of cinema visitors in Ukraine soared by 40%, UNIAN(April 8, 2009)
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Further reading
- ISBN 5-7702-0554-7
- George O. Liber, Soviet nationality policy, urban growth, and identity change in the Ukrainian SSR 1923-1934, Cambridge: CUP, 1992, ISBN 0-521-41391-5
- ISBN 0-916458-09-1
- Terry D. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire. Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939, Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8014-8677-7
- Закон про мови (Law on languages), 1989 (in Ukrainian), English translation.
- Constitution of Ukraine.
- Ukrainian language - the third official?, Ukrayinska Pravda, November 28, 2005
- ISBN 978-0-19-530545-6.
- UKRAINE: Russian Language Toned Down, Inter Press Service, August 11, 2008
- The dictionary definition of Citations:Ukrainianize at Wiktionary
- Myroslav Shkandrij. The Ukrainian reading public in the 1920s: real, implied, and ideal Canadian Slavonic Papers 58, no.2 (2016)
- What Languages are Actually Spoken in Ukraine, Best Kyiv Guide, May 12, 2023