Ulster English
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Ulster English,
The two major divisions of Ulster English are Mid-Ulster English, the most widespread variety, and Ulster Scots English, spoken in much of northern
Phonology
In general, Ulster English speakers'
The following phonetics are represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Vowels
In the following chart,[5] "UE" refers to Ulster English, which includes Mid-Ulster English (which may incorporate older, more traditional Mid-Ulster English), as well as Ulster Scots (English). "SSIE" here refers to a mainstream, supraregional southern Hiberno-English, used in the chart for the sake of comparison.
Pure vowels (Monophthongs) | |||
---|---|---|---|
English diaphoneme |
UE | SSIE | Example words |
/æ/ | äˑ~a | æ~a | bath, trap, man |
/ɑː/ | ɑː~äˑ | aˑ~äˑ | blah, calm, father |
conservative /ɒ/ | ɒ~ɑ~ä | ä | bother, lot, top |
divergent /ɒ/ | ɒː (Mid-Ulster) ɔː (Ulster Scots) äː (traditional) |
ɒː | cloth, loss, off |
/ɔː/ | all, bought, saw | ||
/ɛ/ | ɛ (Belfast: [ɛ̝ˑə]) | dress, met, bread | |
/ə/ | ə | about, syrup, arena | |
/ɪ/ | ɪ̈~ë (Mid-Ulster) ə~ɘ (traditional) ɛ (Ulster Scots) |
ɪ | hit, skim, tip |
/iː/ | iˑ (traditionally, [ɪi]) | iˑ | beam, chic, fleet |
/i/ | e | i | happy, monkeys, sari |
/ʌ/ | ɞ~ʌ̈ | ʊ~ʌ̈ | bus, flood, young |
/ʊ/ | ʉ (Mid-Ulster) ʊ̈ (Ulster Scots) |
ʊ | book, put, should |
/uː/ | uː | food, glue, new | |
Diphthongs | |||
/aɪ/ | äˑe~ɜi | aɪ~äɪ~ɑɪ | eye, five, try |
ɐi~ɜi | bright, dice, site | ||
/aʊ/ | ɐʏ~ɜʉ | æʊ~ɛʊ | now, ouch, scout |
/eɪ/ | eː~ɪː ( closed-syllabic [eˑə~ɪˑə])
|
eː | lame, rein, stain |
/ɔɪ/ | ɔɪ | ɒɪ | boy, choice, moist |
/oʊ/ | oˑ (closed-syllabic [oˑə]) | oʊ | goat, oh, show |
R-coloured vowels
| |||
/ɑːr/ | ɑˑɻ | ɑˑɹ~äˑɹ | barn, car, park |
/ɪər/ | iˑɚ | iˑɹ | fear, peer, tier |
/ɛər/ | ɛˑɚ (Belfast: [ɝˑ]) | eˑɹ | bare, bear, there |
/ɜːr/ | ɚˑ ★ traditional (split: [ɚˑ] vs. [ɛˑɚ]) In more traditional Mid-Ulster English, this phoneme may be split, resulting in a distinction between [ɚˑ] and [ɛˑɚ], so that words like urn and earn, for example, are not homophones. |
burn, first, learn | |
/ər/ | ɚ | doctor, martyr, parker | |
/ɔːr/ | ɔˑɚ | ɒˑɹ | for, horse, war |
oˑɚ (rural: [ʉˑɚ]) | oˑɹ | four, hoarse, wore | |
/ʊər/ | øˑɚ | uˑɹ | moor, poor, tour |
Other, less overarching features of some Ulster varieties include:
- Vowels have Scots system. It is considerably less phonemic than Received Pronunciation, and in vernacular Belfast speech vowel length may vary depending on stress.
- /ɒ/ and /ɔː/ distinction in cot and body versus caught and bawdy is mostly preserved, except in Ulster Scots (which here follows Scottish speech) and traditional varieties.
- /e/ may occur in such words as beat, decent, leave, Jesus, etc., though this feature is recessive.
- Lagan Valley /ɛ/ before /k/ in take and make, etc.
- /ɛ/ before velars, as in sack, bag, and bang, etc.
- Merger of /a/–/aː/ in all monosyllables, e.g. Sam and psalm [ˈsaːm ~ ˈsɑːm] (the phonetic quality varies).
- /ʉ/ is possible in rural speech before /r/ in FORCE words like floor, whore, door, board, etc.[6]
- Vowels are short before /p, t, tʃ, k/.
- Ulster Lengthening, which refers to the use of long allophones of /e, ɛ, a, ɔ/ in any single syllable word that is closed by a consonant other than /p, t, tʃ, k/.
Consonants
- Rhoticity, that is, retention of /r/ in all positions.
- Palatalisation of /k, ɡ/ before /a/ is a recessive feature of rural speakers or older Catholic speakers in Belfast.[7]
- /l/ is not vocalised, except historically; usually "clear" as in Southern Hiberno-English, with some exceptions.
- Unaspirated /p/, /k/ between vowels in words such as pepper and packet.
- Tapped [ɾ] for /t/ and /d/ between vowels in words such as butter and city.[8] This is similar to North American and Australian English.
- Dental [t̪] and [d̪] for /t/ and /d/ before /r/ in words such as butter or dry. Dental realisations of /n, l/ may occur as well, e.g. dinner, pillar.[9] This feature, shared with Southern Hiberno-English, has its origins in English and Scots.[10]
- /ʍ/–/w/ contrast in which–witch. This feature is recessive, particularly in vernacular Belfast speech.
- Elision of /d/ in hand [ˈhɑːn], candle [ˈkanl] and old [ˈəʉl], etc.
- Elision of /b, ɡ/ in sing [ˈsɪŋ], thimble, finger etc.
- /θ/ and /ð/ for th.[8]
- /x/ for gh is retained in proper names and a few dialect words or pronunciations,lough, trough and sheugh.
Grammar derived from Irish or Scottish Gaelic
This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2018) |
The
Irish has separate forms for the second person singular (tú) and the second person plural (sibh), ("thou" and "ye" respectively in archaic and some intimate, informal English). Ulster English mirrors Irish in that the singular "you" is distinguished from the plural "you". This is normally done by using the words yous, yousuns or yis.[12] For example:
- "Are yous not finished yet?"
- "Did yousuns all go to see it?"
- "What are yis up to?"
Irish lacks words that directly translate as "yes" or "no", and instead repeats the verb in a question (positively or negatively) to answer. As such, Northern and Southern Hiberno-English use "yes" and "no" less frequently than other English dialects.[13][14] For example:
- "Are you coming home soon?" "I am"
- "Is your computer working?" "It's not"
This is not necessarily true in Ulster English where "Aye" for yes and "Naw" for no are used, probably a Scottish influence.
The absence of the verb "have" in Irish has influenced some grammar. The concept of "have" is expressed in Irish by the construction ag ("at") mé ("me") to create agam ("at me"). Hence, Ulster English speakers sometimes use the verb "have" followed by "with me/on me".[15] For example:
- "Do you have the book with you?" "I have it with me"
- "Do you have money for the bus on you?" "I have none on me"
Vocabulary
Much
Ulster English | Standard English | Type | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
ach!, och!, ack! | annoyance, regret, etc. | interjection | Pronounced akh or okh. Usually used to replace "ah!" and "oh!". Ach is Irish for "but", and can be used in the same context. Och is Irish and Scottish Gaelic for "alas", and again can be used in the same context.[16] Cf. German, Dutch, Frisian ach and English agh, German and Dutch have both ach and och. |
aul, oul | old | adjective | Pronounced owl. From auld, an archaic form of old that is still used in Scots and Northern English dialects. |
aye, auy | yes | adverb | Used throughout northern Ireland, Scotland and northern England. General Scots and dialect/archaic English, first attested 1575. |
bake | mouth or face | noun | A different pronunciation and extended meaning of beak. Dutch bek or bakkes are used as rude words for mouth, too. |
banjax | to break/ruin/destroy, a mess |
verb noun |
Used throughout Ireland; origin unknown.[17] |
bine | cigarette | noun | Possibly from Woodbine (cigarette). |
blade | girl | noun | Mainly used in Tyrone with different meanings depending on usage, but always refers to a female. "Look at thon blade" – "Look at that girl"; "Our blade" – "My sister/cousin" (Can also be used as a term of endearment in this form) |
boak, boke | to retch/vomit, vomit |
verb noun |
From Scots bowk.[18] |
bog | wetland/toilet | noun | From Irish and Scottish Gaelic bogach meaning "wetland". |
boggin/bogging | disgusting, ugly or otherwise generally unappealing. | adjective | Probably derived from bog (see above) |
boreen | a narrow road/lane/track | noun | From Irish bóithrín meaning "small road".[19] |
bout ye? | how are you? | greeting | From the longer version "What about ye?" ("What about you?"), which is also used.[20][21] |
bru | unemployment benefits | noun | Pronounced broo. Shortened from welfare bureau.[22] |
cat-melodeon | awful | adjective | Probably a combination of cat and melodeon, referencing the sound of a screeching cat and badly-played melodeon tunes.[23][24] .
The second part is pronounced mə-LOH-jin |
caul, coul | cold | adjective | Pronounced kowl. From Scots cauld meaning "cold".[25] |
carlin' | old woman | noun | From Norse kerling meaning "woman" (especially an old woman).[26] |
carnaptious[26] | quarrelsome/irritable | adjective | From Scots.[27] |
claggerd | covered with something adhesive (usually dirt) | adjective | From Scots claggert meaning "besmeared".[28] |
cowp | to tip over/to fall over | verb | From Scots.[29] |
crack, craic | banter/fun/gossip/news (e.g. "What's the crack?) |
noun | Crack is originally a Scots/Northern English word meaning something like "news", "gossip" or "fun". Originally spelt crack but the Gaelicized spelling craic started in the 1960s and is now common.[21] |
craitur, craytur | a term of endearment (e.g. "The poor craitur") |
noun | From the Hiberno-English pronunciation of creature where ea is realised /e/ (see above) and -ture as archaic /tər/ rather than the standard affricate /tʃər/.
|
culchie | farmer/rural dweller | noun | Origin uncertain—either from Irish coillte meaning "woods";[30] from Irish cúl a' tí meaning "back of the house" (for it was common practise for country people to go in the back door of the house they were visiting);[31] or from the -culture in "agriculture". |
dander | walk | noun/verb | From Scots or Northern English. |
dead-on | okay/no problem | interjection adjective |
Origin uncertain.[21] |
drawk, drawky |
to soak/drench, wet/showery |
verb adjective |
From Irish droch-aimsir meaning "bad weather" or "wet weather"[32] or the less likely Scots draik/drawk.[33] |
eejit | idiot | noun | From the Hiberno-English and Scottish English pronunciation of idiot. Popularised in England to some extent by Terry Wogan. |
feck | a mild form of fuck | interjection | Gained popularity following its frequent use in the 1990s comedy TV series Father Ted, and is more commonly found in Hiberno-English. |
fella | man | noun | From English fellow; ultimately from Norse felagi. |
footer, futer |
fidget/waste time | verb | Via Scots fouter from Old French foutre.Perhaps from Irish fútar.[34] |
fernenst/forninst/fornenst | in front of/facing/against/opposite/beside | adjective | From Scots or Northern English. |
founder, foundered |
cold, to be cold |
noun adjective |
From Scots foundert/foondert/fundert which can mean "(to be) chilled".[35] |
geg, geggin' | joke, joking | noun/verb | From English gag. |
glen | valley | noun | From Irish gleann. |
gob, gub | mouth | noun | From Irish gob, which can mean "mouth". |
grub | food | ||
gutties, guddies | running shoes | noun | From Scots, in which it is used to mean anything made of rubber. Note also the phrase "Give her the guttie" meaning "Step on it (accelerate)".[36] |
hai, hey | an exclamation to call attention or to express pleasure, surprise, bewilderment, etc. | exclamation | Filler Word used at the end of a sentence.[37][38] |
hallion | a good-for-nothing | noun | From Scots hallion meaning "rascal".[39] |
hesp | a scolding old woman | noun | Perhaps from Irish easpan.[40] Cf. Scots hesper: a hard thing to do; a difficult person to get on with.[41] |
hoak, hoke | to search for/to forage (e.g. "Have a hoak for it") |
verb | From Scots howk.[42] |
hooley | party | noun | Origin unknown; perhaps a variant of Irish céilí.[43]
|
houl | hold | verb | Pronounced howl. From Scots/Northern English. |
jap | to splatter; to splash; (of a frying pan) emit tiny 'sparks' of hot fat | verb | From Scots jaup.[44] |
jouk, juke | to dodge/to go | verb | From Scots jouk meaning "to dodge".[45] |
keen, keenin', keenin' |
to lament/to wail, lamenting/wailing, shrill (in terms of sound) |
verb noun adjective |
From Irish caoin meaning "lament". Keening was a traditional practice done by woman at Irish funerals. |
lock'a | an unspecified amount (e.g. "In a lock'a minutes") |
determiner | From Irish loca meaning "a pile of" or "a wad of", or simply an extended meaning of "lock" as in "a lock of hair". |
lough
|
lake/sea inlet | noun | Pronounced lokh. From Irish loch. |
lug | ear | noun | From Scots. Originally from Norse, used to mean "an appendage" (cf. Norwegian lugg meaning "a tuft of hair"). Used throughout Scotland & Ireland. |
malarky, malarkey | nonsense | noun | Probably from Irish. |
munya | great/lovely/attractive | adjective | Origin unknown.[46] |
oxter | armpit/under-arm | noun | From Scots.[47] Dutch oksel = armpit |
poke | ice-cream | noun | From Scots poke meaning "bag" or "pouch". |
potcheen | hooch/bootleg alcohol | noun | From Irish poitín. |
quare, kwer | very/considerable (e.g. "A quare distance") |
adjective adverb |
A different pronunciation and extended meaning of "queer".[48] Used throughout Ireland. |
scrawb | scratch/scrape | noun/verb | From Irish scráib.[49] Cf. Northern English scrab and Dutch schrapen (to scrape). |
scunner/scunder, scunnerd/scunderd |
to annoy/embarrass, annoyed/embarrassed |
verb adjective |
From Scots scunner/scunnert meaning "offended" or "fed up".[50] |
sheuch, sheugh |
a small shallow ditch (pronounced /ˈʃʌx/) |
noun | From Scots sheuch.[51] |
skite, skitter, scoot |
to move quickly | verb | From Norse skjuta meaning "to shoot" (cf. Norwegian skutla meaning "to glide quickly"). |
skite | to splatter with force | verb | From Norse skjuta. |
slew | a great amount | noun | From Irish slua meaning "a crowd/multitude".[52] |
smidgen | a very small piece | noun | From Irish smidean. |
snig | to snap-off/lop-off | verb | Origin unknown.[53] Cf. Scots sneg[54] < sneck.[55] |
stour | dust | noun | From Old French estour.[56] |
targe | a sharp-tongued woman | noun | From Scots[57] |
tae | tea | noun | Pronounced tay |
tip | dump or dumpster | noun | |
til | to | preposition | From Norse til. |
the-day, the-night, the-marra |
today, tonight, tomorrow |
noun/adverb | From Scots the day, the nicht, the morra. |
thon | that | adjective | From Scots; originally yon in archaic English, the th by analogy with this and that.[58] |
thonder | there (something distant but within sight) | adjective | From Scots; originally yonder in archaic English. |
throughother | disorganised and careless | adjective | Probably from Irish. However, it has parallels in both Goidelic (e.g. Irish trína chéile) and Germanic (e.g. Scots throuither,[59] Dutch doorelkaar, door-een, German durcheinander). |
wee | little, but also used as a generic diminutive | adjective | From Middle English. Used throughout the north of Ireland and in Scotland. |
weean, wean | child | noun | From Scots wee (small) + ane (one).[60] |
wheeker | excellent | adjective | From Scots wheech meaning "to snatch". Onomatopoeic.[61] |
wheen[62] | a few/several | determiner | From Scots.[63] Usually used in the phrase "a wheen of..." |
whisht | be quiet (a command) | interjection | The Irish huist,[64] meaning "be quiet", is an unlikely source since the word is known throughout England and Scotland where it derives from early Middle English whist[65] (cf. Middle English hust[66] and Scots wheesht[67]). |
wojus | awful/expression of surprise | adjective | Probably a variation of odious. Can also be used as an expression of surprise, usually to something negative. In this case it is most likely a shortened form of "Oh Jesus!" Used throughout Ireland. |
ye | you (singular) | pronoun | From Middle English ye, but pronounced with a short e sound. |
yous, yousuns | you (plural) | pronoun | See grammar derived from Irish or Scottish Gaelic. |
Furthermore, speakers of the dialect conjugate many verbs according to how they are formed in the most vernacular forms of Ulster Scots, e.g. driv instead of drove and driven as the past tense of drive, etc. (literary Scots drave, driven). Verbal syncretism is extremely widespread, as is the
Mid-Ulster English
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2017) |
The speech in southern and western
Belfast and surroundings
The
The Belfast dialect is now becoming more frequently heard in towns and villages whose inhabitants would have traditionally spoken with a distinctively rural accent. Examples of such areas are Moira, Ballyclare, Dromore and Ballynahinch. It could be said that many young people in these areas prefer to use the more cosmopolitan city accent, as opposed to the local variant that their parents or people in other areas would use.
Other phonological features include the following:
- Two major realisations of /e/ are to be encountered: in open syllables a long monophthong near [ɛː], but in closed syllables an ingliding diphthong, perhaps most typically [eə], but ranging from [ɛə] to [iə]. Thus days [dɛːz] and daze [deəz] are not homophonous.
- In Belfast, and in Mid- and South Ulster, the opposition between /ɔ/ and /ɒ/ is better maintained than in other parts of Ulster, though it is restricted to only a few environments, e.g., that of a following voiceless plosive. Thus stock [stɒk ~ stɑk ~ sta̠k] is distinct from stalk [stɔ(ː)k]. However, this is complicated by the fact that certain words belonging to the Standard Lexical Set THOUGHT have /ɒ/ rather than the expected /ɔ/. These typically include draw, fall, walk, and caught. Water often has /a/ (the TRAP vowel).
- The /aʊ/ phoneme is pronounced [əʉ] in most of Ulster, but in Belfast it is extremely variable and is a sensitive social marker. Pronunciations with a relatively front first element, [ɛ̈] or fronter, are working class. Middle class speakers prefer back [ɑ] or even [ɔ]. The second element is [ʉ ~ y ~ ɨ], often with little or no rounding. How and now may receive special treatment in working-class Belfast speech, with an open first element [a ~ ɑ] and a second element ranging over [i ~ ʉ], a retroflex approximant [ɻ], and zero, i.e., there may be no second element.[68]
Some of the vocabulary used among young people in Ulster, such as the word "
Derry and surroundings
The accent of
Ulster Scots English
This region is heavily influenced by the historic presence of
.In the 1830s, Ordnance Survey memoirs came to the following conclusion about the dialect of the inhabitants of Carnmoney, east Antrim: "Their accent is peculiarly, and among old people disagreeably, strong and broad." The BBC conducted a sociolinguistic survey of Ulster Scots grammar.[70] East Donegal also has a strong Ulster Scots dialect (see below).
South Ulster English
South Armagh, south Monaghan, south Fermanagh, south Donegal, and a small part of north Leitrim, and north Cavan[71][72] natives speak their own distinct variety of English.[73] Areas such as southern and western County Armagh, central and southern County Monaghan (known locally as South Monaghan), northern County Cavan and the southern 'strip' of County Fermanagh are the hinterland of the larger Mid-Ulster dialect. The accent gradually shifts from village to village, forming part of the dialect continuum between areas to the North and Midlands (as it once did in Gaelic). This accent is also used in north County Louth (located in Leinster) and in part of the northern 'strip' of County Leitrim (in Connacht). There are areas that show a mixture of accents with Ulster-English and Hiberno-English.
These areas fall along the east coastline. South Ulster English's phonology is markedly different from Ulster Scots and majority Ulster English in several aspects, including preservation of dichotomous pattern of phonemic vowel length seen in Middle English.[74] Another feature of South Ulster English is the drop in pitch on stressed syllables. A prominent phonetic feature of South Ulster is the realisation of /t/ as a fricative with identical characteristics of the stop, i.e. an apico-alveolar fricative in weak positions.[75]
See also
- Ulster Scots
- Ulster Irish
- Languages of Ireland
- Hiberno-English
Bibliography
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: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Dolan, Terence Patrick (2006). A Dictionary of Hiberno-English. Gill & Macmillan. p. 250.
- ^ [18] Archived 26 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Dolan, Terence Patrick (2006). A Dictionary of Hiberno-English. Gill & Macmillan. p. 252.
- ^ [19] Archived 20 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "You searched for whist". 11 May 2022.
- ^ "Middle English Dictionary Entry". umich.edu.
- ^ "Results of Headword Search in Middle English Dictionary". umich.edu.
- ^ [20] Archived 4 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "English Accents : Week 18 (ii). Northern Ireland" (PDF). Phon.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
- ISBN 0-14-051562-3)
- ^ From p 13 of Ulster-Scots: A Grammar of the Traditional Written and Spoken Language, by Robinson, Philip, published 1997.
- ISBN 978-0521264785.
- ^ Hickey, 2007, p. 93.
- ISBN 978-0415145244.
- ISBN 9780521284097.
- ^ Hickey, Raymond (2004). "The phonology of Irish English" (PDF). Handbook of Varieties of English. 1: Phonology: 68–97.
Further reading
- "Irish English and Ulster English" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2014.