Ulster loyalism
Ulster loyalism is a strand of Ulster unionism associated with working class Ulster Protestants in Northern Ireland. Like other unionists, loyalists support the continued existence of Northern Ireland (and formerly all of Ireland) within the United Kingdom, and oppose a united Ireland independent of the UK. Unlike other strands of unionism, loyalism has been described as an ethnic nationalism of Ulster Protestants and "a variation of British nationalism".[1][2] Loyalists are often said to have a conditional loyalty to the British state so long as it defends their interests.[3][4][5] They see themselves as loyal primarily to the Protestant British monarchy rather than to British governments and institutions,[6] while Garret FitzGerald argued they are loyal to 'Ulster' over 'the Union'.[7] A small minority of loyalists have called for an independent Ulster Protestant state, believing they cannot rely on British governments to support them (see Ulster nationalism). The term 'loyalism' is usually associated with paramilitarism.[3][8][9]
Ulster loyalism emerged in the late
Northern Ireland's unionist governments were accused of discrimination against Catholics and Irish nationalists. Loyalists opposed the Catholic civil rights movement, accusing it of being a republican front. This unrest led to the Troubles (1969–98). During the conflict, loyalist paramilitaries such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA) often attacked Catholics, partly in retaliation for republican paramilitary actions. Loyalists undertook major protest campaigns against the 1973 Sunningdale Agreement and 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement. The paramilitaries called ceasefires in 1994 and their representatives were involved in negotiating the 1998 Good Friday Agreement. Since then, loyalists have been involved in protests against perceived threats to their cultural identity. Sections of the loyalist paramilitaries have attacked Catholics, taken part in loyalist feuds, and withdrawn support for the Agreement, although their campaigns have not resumed.
In Northern Ireland there is a tradition of loyalist Protestant
History
The term loyalist was first used in Irish politics in the 1790s to refer to Protestants who opposed
Ulster loyalism emerged in the late 19th century, in response to the
Home Rule crisis and Partition
The British government's introduction of the
By the end of the war, most Irish nationalists wanted full independence. After winning most Irish seats in the
In 1926, about 33.5% of the Northern Ireland population was Roman Catholic, with 62.2% belonging to the three major Protestant denominations (
The Troubles
The Unionist governments of Northern Ireland were accused of discrimination against the Irish nationalist and Catholic minority. A non-violent campaign to end discrimination began in the late 1960s. This civil rights campaign was opposed by loyalists, who accused it of being a republican front.[18] Loyalist opposition was led primarily by Ian Paisley, a Protestant fundamentalist preacher. They held counter-protests, attacked civil rights marches, and put pressure on moderate unionists. Loyalist militants carried out false flag bombings that were blamed on republicans and civil rights activists.[19][20] This unrest led to the August 1969 riots. Irish nationalists/republicans clashed with both police and with loyalists, who burned hundreds of Catholic homes and businesses.[21] The riots led to the deployment of British troops and are often seen as the beginning of the Troubles.
The beginning of the Troubles saw a revival of loyalist paramilitaries, notably the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA). Their stated goals were to defend Protestant areas, to fight those they saw as "enemies of Ulster" (namely republicans),[5] and thwart any step towards Irish unification. The Provisional Irish Republican Army waged a paramilitary campaign to force a British withdrawal from Northern Ireland. Loyalist paramilitaries attacked the Catholic community as alleged retaliation for IRA actions, and the vast majority of their victims were random Catholic civilians.[22] During the Troubles there were incidents where local British soldiers and police colluded with loyalist paramilitaries,[23] such as the attacks by the Glenanne group.
Signed in 1973, the Sunningdale Agreement sought to end the conflict by establishing power-sharing government between unionists and Irish nationalists, and ensuring greater co-operation with the Republic of Ireland. In protest, loyalists organised the Ulster Workers' Council strike in May 1974. It was enforced by loyalist paramilitaries and brought large parts of Northern Ireland to a standstill. During the strike, loyalists detonated a series of car bombs in Dublin and Monaghan, in the Republic. This killed 34 civilians, making it the deadliest attack of the Troubles. The strike brought down the agreement and power-sharing government.[24]
Loyalists were involved in the major protest campaign against the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement. They saw it as a breach of sovereignty, because it gave the Republic an advisory role in some Northern Ireland affairs. The many street protests led to loyalist clashes with the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), whom loyalists accused of enforcing the Agreement and betraying the Protestant community. This caused a rift between loyalists and the police, and there were numerous loyalist attacks on police officers' homes during the protests.[25]
From the late 1980s, there was a rise in loyalist paramilitary violence, partly due to anger over the Anglo-Irish Agreement.[26] It also resulted from loyalist groups being re-armed with weapons smuggled from South Africa, overseen by British Intelligence agent Brian Nelson.[27] From 1992 to 1994, loyalists carried out more killings than republicans.[28] The deadliest attacks during this period were the Greysteel massacre by the UDA and Loughinisland massacre by the UVF.
The main loyalist paramilitary groups called a ceasefire in 1994, shortly after the Provisional IRA's ceasefire and beginning of the Northern Ireland peace process. This ceasefire came under strain during the Drumcree dispute of the mid-to-late 1990s. The Protestant Orange Order was blocked from marching its traditional route through the Catholic part of Portadown. Catholic residents held mass protests against the yearly march, seeing it as triumphalist and supremacist, forcing police to halt the march.[29] Loyalists saw this as an assault on Ulster Protestant traditions, and held violent protests throughout Northern Ireland. In Portadown, thousands of loyalists attacked lines of police and soldiers guarding the Catholic district. A new UVF splinter group, the Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF), attacked Catholics[29] over a two-year period before calling a ceasefire.
After the Good Friday Agreement
Loyalist representatives had helped negotiate the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, and it was backed by the UVF-linked Progressive Unionist Party and UDA-linked Ulster Democratic Party. However, wider loyalist support for the Agreement was tenuous from the outset,[30] and these parties received many fewer votes than the main unionist parties: the pro-Agreement UUP and anti-Agreement DUP.[30]
Since the Agreement, loyalist paramilitaries have been involved in riots, feuds between loyalist groups, organised crime,[30] vigilantism such as punishment shootings, and racist attacks.[31][32] Some UDA and LVF brigades broke the ceasefire and attacked Catholics under the name Red Hand Defenders,[30] but the paramilitary campaigns did not resume.
The 2001 Holy Cross protests drew world-wide condemnation as loyalists were shown hurling abuse and missiles, some explosive, others containing excrement, at very young Catholic schoolchildren and parents. Loyalist residents picketed the school in protest at alleged sectarianism from Catholics in the area.[30] Many other loyalist protests and riots have been sparked by restrictions on Orange marches, such as the 2005 Whiterock riots. The widespread loyalist flag protests and riots of 2012–13 followed Belfast City Council voting to limit the flying of the Union Flag from council buildings. Loyalists saw it as an "attack on their cultural identity".[33]
The Loyalist Communities Council was launched in 2015 with the backing of the UVF and UDA. It seeks to reverse what it sees as political and economic neglect of working-class loyalists since the Good Friday Agreement.[34] In 2021, it withdrew its support for the Agreement, due to the creation of a trade border between Northern Ireland and Britain as a result of Brexit. The fall-out over this partly fuelled loyalist rioting that Spring.
Political parties
Active parties
- Democratic Unionist Party (DUP),[35][36] the second-largest party in the Northern Ireland Assembly
- Traditional Unionist Voice (TUV)[37]
- Progressive Unionist Party (PUP), which is linked to the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Red Hand Commando (RHC)
Former parties
- Protestant Coalition (2013–2015)
- Ulster Democratic Party (1981–2001)
- Ulster Vanguard (1972–1978)
- Volunteer Political Party (1974)
- Ulster Protestant League (1930s)
Paramilitary and vigilante groups
Loyalist paramilitary and vigilante groups have been active since the early 20th century. In 1912, the
During the Troubles, their stated goals were to combat
...large areas of the Province that were predominately Protestant are now predominately Catholic. The reaction to this has been that the Ulster Volunteer Force and the Ulster Defence Association have intensified their campaign in order, not just to match the Catholic murders of Protestants, but to stop further enroachment into their areas.[47]
Loyalist paramilitaries were responsible for 29% of all deaths in the Troubles,[48] and were responsible for about 48% of all civilian deaths.[49] Loyalist paramilitaries killed civilians at far higher rates than both Republican paramilitaries and British security forces.[50] Some British soldiers from the local Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) and police officers from the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) colluded with loyalist paramilitaries, such as taking part in loyalist attacks (e.g. the Glenanne gang), giving weapons and intelligence to loyalists, not taking action against them, and hindering official investigations.[51][52]
The
Some loyalist paramilitaries have had links with far-right and Neo-Nazi groups in Britain, including Combat 18,[54][55] the British National Socialist Movement,[56] and the National Front.[57] Since the 1990s, loyalist paramilitaries have been responsible for numerous racist attacks in loyalist areas.[58] A 2006 report revealed that 90% of racist attacks in the previous two years occurred in mainly loyalist areas.[59]
In the 1990s, the main loyalist paramilitaries called ceasefires. Following this, small breakaway groups continued to wage violent campaigns for a number of years, and members of loyalist groups have continued to engage in sporadic violence.
A telephone poll conducted in March 1993 by the News Letter, a Belfast-based newspaper with a unionist editorial stance, sought the view of the Protestant community on a recent upsurge in loyalist paramilitary violence.[60] The poll found that 42 per cent of callers responded "Yes" to the question: "Do you support loyalist paramilitary violence?"[60] Over 50 per cent of callers chose "Yes" in response to the question "Do you believe there are any current circumstances in which loyalist paramilitary violence is justified?"[60]
Fraternities and marching bands
In Northern Ireland there are a number of Protestant fraternities and marching bands who hold yearly parades. They include the Orange Order and Apprentice Boys of Derry. These fraternities, often described as the "Loyal Orders",[9] have long been associated with unionism/loyalism.[61] Yearly events such as the Eleventh Night (11 July) bonfires[62] and The Twelfth (12 July) parades are strongly associated with loyalism. A report published in 2013 estimated there were at least 640 marching bands in Northern Ireland with a total membership of around 30,000, an all-time high.[63] According to the Parades Commission, a total of 1,354 loyalist parades (not counting funerals) were held in Northern Ireland in 2007.[64] The Police Service of Northern Ireland uses different statistics, and recorded a total of 2,863 parades in 2007. Of these, 2,270 (approximately 80%) were held by loyalist marching bands.[65]
Other groups
- Third Force
- Loyalist Association of Workers
- Ulster Workers' Council
- Ulster Political Research Group
- Tara (Northern Ireland)
- Glenanne gang
- Shankill Butchers
- Orange Volunteers
- Orange Volunteers (1972)
- Ulster Resistance
- Ulster Special Constabulary Association
- Down Orange Welfare
- Ulster Protestant Volunteers
See also
References
- ^ Ignatieff, Michael. Blood and Belonging: Journeys into the New Nationalism. Vintage, 1994. p.184.
- ^ John McGarry and Brendan O'Leary. Explaining Northern Ireland. Wiley, 1995. pp.92–93.
- ^ a b Smithey, Lee. Unionists, Loyalists, and Conflict Transformation in Northern Ireland. Oxford University Press, 2011. pp.56–58
- ^ Cochrane Feargal. Unionist Politics and the Politics of Unionism Since the Anglo-Irish Agreement. Cork University Press, 1997. p.67
- ^ a b Tonge, Jonathan. Northern Ireland. Polity Press, 2006. pp.153, 156–158
- ^ Alison, Miranda. Women and Political Violence. Routledge, 2009. p.67.
- ^ Cochrane, Feargal. Unionist Politics and the Politics of Unionism since the Anglo-Irish Agreement. Cork University Press, 2001. p.39.
- ^ Bruce, Steve. The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland. Oxford University Press, 1992. p.15.
- ^ a b Glossary of terms on the Northern Ireland conflict Archived 6 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN)
- ISBN 978-0631232780.
- ^ Gillespie, R. (2019). The ‘Mere Irish’ and the Colonisation of Ulster, 1570–1641. Irish Economic and Social History, 46(1), pp.172–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/0332489319881245e
- ^ Arthur Lyon Cross (1920). A shorter history of England and greater Britain. The Macmillan company. pp. 593–595, 597. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
- ^ Lynch, Robert. The Partition of Ireland: 1918–1925. Cambridge University Press, 2019. p.11, 100–101
- ^ Lynch (2019), pp.90–92
- ^ Lynch (2019), p.99
- ^ Lynch (2019), pp.171–176
- ^ "Background Information on Northern Ireland Society – Religion". Conflict Archive on the Internet. Archived from the original on 2 January 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2016.
- ^ Maney, Gregory. "The Paradox of Reform: The Civil Rights Movement in Northern Ireland", in Nonviolent Conflict and Civil Resistance. Emerald Group Publishing, 2012. p.15
- ^ Jim Cusack & Henry McDonald. UVF. Poolbeg, 1997. p. 28
- ISBN 978-0-7475-4519-4.
- ^ Coogan, Tim Pat. The Troubles: Ireland's Ordeal and the Search for Peace. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. p.106
- ^ Troubled Geographies: A Spatial History of Religion and Society in Ireland. Indiana University Press, 2013. p.185
- ^ "Loyalist paramilitaries admit collusion with army and RUC" Archived 22 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine. The Irish Times, 6 March 1999.
- ^ "Sunningdale and the 1974 Ulster Workers” Council strike" Archived 11 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. History Ireland, Volume 15, Issue 3 (May/June 2007).
- ^ Weitzer, Ronald. Policing Under Fire. State University of New York Press, 1995. p.115
- ^ Richard English & Charles Townshend (editors). The State: Historical and Political Dimensions. Routledge, 2012. p.194
- ^ Jeffrey Sluka (editor). Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010. p.139
- ^ Clayton, Pamela (1996). Enemies and Passing Friends: Settler ideologies in twentieth-century Ulster. Pluto Press. p. 156.
More recently, the resurgence in loyalist violence that led to their carrying out more killings than republicans from the beginning of 1992 until their ceasefire (a fact widely reported in Northern Ireland) was still described as following 'the IRA's well-tested tactic of trying to usurp the political process by violence'……
- ^ a b Kockel, Ullrich. Re-Visioning Europe:Frontiers, Place Identities and Journeys in Debatable Lands. Springer Publishing, 2020. pp.16–20
- ^ a b c d e Gillespie, Gordon. "Noises off: Loyalists after the Agreement", in A Farewell to Arms?: Beyond the Good Friday Agreement. Manchester University Press, 2006. pp.139–142
- ^ "The complex rise in Northern Ireland racist hate crime" Archived 14 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News, 11 September 2014.
- ^ Chrisafis, Angelique. "Racist war of the loyalist street gangs" Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian, 10 January 2004.
- ^ Q&A: Northern Ireland flag protests Archived 14 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine BBC News, 8 December 2012
- ^ "Loyalists 'left behind' since Good Friday Agreement" Archived 14 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine. BBC News, 13 October 2015.
- ^ Smithey, Lee. Unionists, Loyalists, and Conflict Transformation in Northern Ireland. Oxford University Press, 2011. pp.56, 58
- ^ McAuley, James. Very British Rebels?: The Culture and Politics of Ulster Loyalism. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015. p.140
- The News Letter. 31 August 2021.
- ^ "Irish War of Independence". The Irish War. 24 May 2010. Archived from the original on 2 December 2016. Retrieved 1 December 2016.
- ^ a b c Doherty, Barry. Northern Ireland since c.1960. Heinemann, 2001. p15
- ^ "A history of the UDA". BBC News. 6 January 2010. Archived from the original on 26 July 2017. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
- ^ a b McKittrick, David (12 March 2009). "Will loyalists seek bloody revenge?". The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 March 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
- ^ Kentucky New Era, 14 April 1992
- ^ a b Smith, M L R. Fighting for Ireland?. Psychology Press, 1997. p.118
- ^ Tonge, Jonathan. Northern Ireland. Polity, 2006. p.157
- ^ a b Mitchell, Thomas G (2000). "Chapter 7 subsection: The Loyalist terrorists of Ulster, 1969–94". Native vs. Settler. Greenwood Press. pp. 154–165.
- ^ Blair, Tony (17 October 2002). "The full text of Tony Blair's speech in Belfast". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 September 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
- ^ "Editorial, 'The War of Words'", Combat. June 1993.
- ^ "Sutton Index of Deaths: Summary of Organisation responsible". Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN). Archived from the original on 21 July 2015. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
- ^ "Sutton Index of Deaths: Crosstabulations (two-way tables)". Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN). Archived from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 1 March 2016. (choose "organization summary" and "status summary" as the variables)
- ^ "Statistics of Deaths in the Troubles in Ireland". www.wesleyjohnston.com. Archived from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 4 July 2020.
- ^ "UK agents 'worked with NI paramilitary killers'" Archived 24 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 28 May 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2015.
- ^ "Pat Finucane murder: 'Shocking state collusion', says PM" Archived 25 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, BBC. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
- ^ Wood, Ian S. Crimes of Loyalty: A History of the UDA. Edinburgh University Press, 2006. pp.184–185.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas. Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity. NYU Press, 2003. p.45.
- ^ McDonald, Henry (2 July 2000). "English fascists to join loyalists at Drumcree". London: The Observer. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2010.
- ^ Goodrick-Clarke, pp.40–41.
- ^ Wood, Ian S.Crimes of Loyalty: A History of the UDA. Edinburgh University Press, 2006. pp.339–40.
- ^ "Racist war of the loyalist street gangs" Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian, 10 January 2004. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
- ^ "Loyalists linked to 90 per cent of race crime" Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. The Guardian. 22 October 2006.
- ^ a b c Belfast News Letter, 1 April 1993.
- ^ Tonge, Johnathan. Northern Ireland. Polity, 2006. pages 24, 171, 172, 173.
- ^ Simpson, Mark (10 July 2009). "Turning hotspot into friendly fire". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2009.
- ^ "Loyalist band numbers at new high" Archived 9 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine The Newsletter
- ^ All information in this section from the Parades Commission website.
- ^ "Police Service of Northern Ireland". www.psni.police.uk. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
Bibliography
- Potter, John Furniss. A Testimony to Courage – the Regimental History of the Ulster Defence Regiment 1969 – 1992, ISBN 0-85052-819-4
- Ryder, Chris. The Ulster Defence Regiment: An Instrument of Peace?, 1991 ISBN 0-413-64800-1
External links
- Progressive Unionist Party Archived 5 April 2007 at the Wayback Machine