Oran

Coordinates: 35°41′49″N 0°37′59″W / 35.69694°N 0.63306°W / 35.69694; -0.63306
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
(Redirected from
Unica Colonia
)
This article is about the city in Algeria. For other uses, see Oran (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Oiran or Ouran High School Host Club.
Oran
وهران
City
View of Oran's port
Mobilar towers
Hotel de Ville of Oran
Sacred Heart Cathedral
Sheraton Hostel
Church of Santa-Cruz
Abdelhamid Ben Badis Mosque
From top, left to right: general view of Oran's port, Mobilar towers, Oran city hall, Sacred Heart Cathedral, Sheraton Hotel, Santa-Cruz chapel and Abdelhamid Ben Badis Mosque
UTC+1 (CET)
Postal codes
31000 - 31037
Websitewww.wilayaoran.dz

Oran (

Arabic: وَهران, romanized: Wahrān)[a] is a major coastal city located in the northwest of Algeria. It is considered the second most important city of Algeria, after the capital, Algiers, because of its population and commercial, industrial and cultural importance. It is 432 km (268 mi) west-southwest from Algiers. The total population of the city was 803,329 in 2008,[6] while the metropolitan area has a population of approximately 1,500,000,[7] making it the second-largest city in Algeria.[8]

Etymology

mane

The word Wahran comes from the Berber expression wa - iharan (place of lions).[9] A locally popular legend tells that in the period around AD 900, there were sightings of Barbary lions in the area. The last two lions were killed on a mountain near Oran, and it became known as la montagne des lions ("The Mountain of Lions").[10] Two giant lion statues stand in front of Oran's city hall, symbolizing the city.

History

Overview

During the Roman Empire, a small settlement called Unica Colonia existed in the area of the current Oran, but this settlement disappeared as the Maghreb was conquered by a succession of regional powers, beginning with the Vandals in 435,[11] followed by the Berbers of the Mauro-Roman Kingdom,[12] and finally the Arabs around the start of the 8th century.[13]

Present-day Oran was founded in 903 by the

Cardinal Cisneros in 1509, and Spanish sovereignty lasted until 1708 when the city was conquered by the Algerians during the siege of Siege of Oran (1707–1708). Spain recaptured the city in 1732. However, its value as a trading post had decreased greatly, so during the reign of King Charles IV the city was recaptured in 1790-1792 by a coalition of Algerian troops against Spain which resulted in victory for the bey of Oran despite the many attempts in 1563. The beylik lasted until 1831 when the city fell to the French
.

Under

shelled French warships in the port after they refused a British ultimatum to surrender; this action was taken to ensure the fleet would not fall into German hands, as the Nazis had defeated France and occupied Paris. The action increased the hatred of the Vichy regime for Britain but convinced the world that the British would fight alone against Nazi Germany and its allies. The Vichy government held Oran during World War II until its capture by the Allies in late 1942, during Operation Torch
.

Also, during French rule, Jews were encouraged to modernize and take on jobs they had not before, including agriculture, while Muslims were forced out of the city and their ancestral fertile lands were confiscated and given to Colons.[16] Jews in the city were allowed to join the French Army starting October 24, 1870, while Muslims were forced to do military service. Algerian Jews were granted citizenship while Algerian Muslims were not. Jews would soon be targeted after the war for not supporting the struggle for independence against France.[17]

Before the

Algerian Jews living in Oran fled to France. In less than three months, Oran lost about half its population.[17]

Religious history

Great Synagogue of Oran
was converted into a mosque in 1975.

With its location as the closest port to Spain and its prominence on the Mediterranean, Jewish refugees first immigrated to Oran to flee persecution and conversion to Christianity in Spain in 1391. This refuge brought other religious refugees that included both Jews again and Muslims in both 1492 and 1502. On October 24, 1870, with French dominance, Algerian Jews were given French citizenship with the Crémieux Decree. Later, despite a World War II sentiment that favored acceptance, Oran still had a history marked by intolerance. There was a decrease in the Jewish population as Muslims were the only group granted citizenship protection in 1963, one year after Algerian independence.[20]

Islamic dynasties (910–1509)

Start year End year Event
910 1082 By 910 Oran became a perpetual object of conflict between the
Fatimids of Kairouan
.
1082 1145 Presence of
Almoravids in 1082. In 1145, Tashfin ibn Ali perished in the outskirts of Oran while trying to flee the besieging Almohad troops, who had already captured Tlemcen
.
1145 1238 Presence of
Almohads
. 1147 marked the beginning of a period of persecution of Oran's Jews.
1238 1509 Presence of the
Ibn Khaldoun
wrote, "Oran is superior to all other cities by its trade. It's a paradise for the unhappy one. Those who arrive poor in its walls, will leave it again rich." The city excelled in the export of lead, wool, skins, fine burnous, carpets, haïks, cumin, nuts and galls.

Spanish period (1509–1708, 1732–1792)

Santa Cruz Fort, Oran. Santa Cruz is Spanish for "holy cross
".

Before the Spaniards, the Portuguese launched a failed expedition to capture the city in July 1501. Four years later, the Spanish took

set fire to the books and archives of the town.[21]

By 1554, the Turks had reached Algiers. The governor of Oran,

Charles I and paternal half-brother of King Philip II), led a flotilla
of 33 galleys against the Algerians.

A two-part map showing the port of Oran in the 18th century, by German map publisher Matthäus Seutter

In April 1669 the Spanish governor, the 6th

Marquess of Los Vélez, expelled all the Jews who lived in Oran and Mers El Kébir[22] sending them to be resettled in either Nice, or Livorno
.

The Spanish rebuilt

bull of the Crusade, a contribution of the Spanish Catholic church.[23]

Beylikal period (1708–1732, 1792–1831)

Main article:
Beylik of Oran
The Bey Othmane El Kebir Mosque (Minaret de la perle)

The Spanish occupied the city until 1708, when the

drive the Spanish out.[25][26]

In 1732, Spanish forces returned under José Carrillo de Albornoz, capturing the city from Bouchelaghem. Spain maintained its hold over Oran for the next six decades.[27]

In the night after October 8, 1790,

Dey of Algiers
.

Siege of Oran and Mers el-Kébir (1790–1792)

After another earthquake damaged the Spanish defences, the forces of the new Bey of Oran,

Algiers
) was built by the Bey with ransom money paid for the release of Spanish prisoners after Spain's final departure.

French period (1831–1962)

Oran from steps of City Hall, 1894
Fantasia in Oran, 1880
city hall
, dating from the French period

The town of 10,000 inhabitants was still in the possession of the

General Berthezène appointed Mr. Pujol as mayor of Oran; he had been captain of cavalry in retirement and was wounded in the right hand under the Empire.[citation needed
]

In 1832, leading a force of five thousand men, the young Emir

Abd al-Qadir attacked Oran. In April 1833, commander-in-chief, General Boyer, was replaced by the baron Louis Alexis Desmichels. The city's defenders, under attack by Abd al Qadir, held their ground.[citation needed] Many Europeans settled in Oran during the French period, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the city's population.[29][30][31]

In World War II, Oran was one of the landing points in Operation Torch, the first American action in the Europe-North Africa theatre in November 1942. The Task Force suffered some damage to its fleet, trying to land in shallow water, but the enemy ships were sunk or driven off, and Oran surrendered after heavy fire from British battleships.[32]

Since independence (1962)

Due to the exodus of

Pieds-Noirs, the Cathédrale du Sacré-Cœur d'Oran was converted into a public library, Aubert Library of Oran, in 1984.[33]

Today, Oran is a major port and a commercial centre, and has three universities. The old quarter of Oran has a

casbah and an 18th-century mosque. The modern section of Oran is referred to as La Ville Nouvelle and was built after 1831; this section contrasts with the older section, La Blanca.[34]

Geography

Climate

Oran features a

hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh). Oran's climate does show influences of a Mediterranean climate
; however, the combination of the city's relatively high average annual temperature and relatively low annual precipitation precludes it from falling under that climate category. Oran averages 326 mm (13 in) of precipitation annually, the bulk of which falls between November and May. Summers are the warmest times of the year, with average high temperatures in the warmest month (August) approaching 32 degrees Celsius. Winters are the coolest times of the year in Oran, with high temperatures in the coolest month (January) at around 17 degrees Celsius.

Climate data for Oran (Ahmed Ben Bella Airport) (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1886–present[b])
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 27.3
(81.1) 		33.0
(91.4) 		36.6
(97.9) 		36.6
(97.9) 		40.0
(104.0) 		42.2
(108.0) 		44.4
(111.9) 		43.0
(109.4) 		41.1
(106.0) 		37.4
(99.3) 		33.0
(91.4) 		30.8
(87.4) 		44.4
(111.9)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 17.0
(62.6) 		17.9
(64.2) 		20.1
(68.2) 		22.1
(71.8) 		25.0
(77.0) 		28.5
(83.3) 		31.5
(88.7) 		32.4
(90.3) 		29.4
(84.9) 		26.0
(78.8) 		20.9
(69.6) 		17.9
(64.2) 		24.1
(75.4)
Daily mean °C (°F) 11.2
(52.2) 		12.2
(54.0) 		14.4
(57.9) 		16.5
(61.7) 		19.5
(67.1) 		23.0
(73.4) 		25.9
(78.6) 		26.7
(80.1) 		23.8
(74.8) 		20.2
(68.4) 		15.4
(59.7) 		12.4
(54.3) 		18.4
(65.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 5.4
(41.7) 		6.5
(43.7) 		8.7
(47.7) 		10.8
(51.4) 		14.0
(57.2) 		17.6
(63.7) 		20.4
(68.7) 		21.0
(69.8) 		18.3
(64.9) 		14.4
(57.9) 		9.8
(49.6) 		6.9
(44.4) 		12.8
(55.0)
Record low °C (°F) −2.9
(26.8) 		−3.3
(26.1) 		−1.3
(29.7) 		1.0
(33.8) 		3.0
(37.4) 		9.5
(49.1) 		11.5
(52.7) 		10.0
(50.0) 		7.8
(46.0) 		1.2
(34.2) 		1.0
(33.8) 		−2.0
(28.4) 		−3.3
(26.1)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 46.3
(1.82) 		41.7
(1.64) 		37.6
(1.48) 		35.7
(1.41) 		23.1
(0.91) 		3.5
(0.14) 		0.8
(0.03) 		2.4
(0.09) 		17.4
(0.69) 		34.4
(1.35) 		64.6
(2.54) 		47.9
(1.89) 		355.4
(13.99)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 6.3 5.6 5.0 4.7 3.1 0.9 0.2 0.5 2.6 4.4 6.6 5.7 45.6
Average
relative humidity
(%) 		80 77 74 73 69 70 69 68 72 75 77 78 73
Source 1: NOAA[35]
Source 2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (humidity 1949–1967, records 1941–1970),[36] Meteo Climat (records)[37]

Earthquakes

Further information: List of earthquakes in Algeria

As Oran is located in Northern Algeria, it faces the threat of earthquakes that can cause damage. However, the last major earthquake was in 1790; 3,000 people died as a result. Many of the existing older buildings in the city have been reinforced, and newer construction is designed to withstand earthquakes. While the city dates back to the 900s, the oldest remaining buildings are from the French period in the 1800s making it easier to reinforce these buildings.[38]

Government

Further information: List of mayors of Oran

City districts

Further information: Quarters of Oran

List of districts of Oran

Neighborhoods and districts of Oran, old map

Since 2019, Oran have 18 communal délégations (ex. districts) et les 83 quarters.[39]

Arabic name and names of the districts of Oran (old division)
District Arabic name Name
1    الحمري El Hamri
2    حي الإمام الهواري Hai Imam El-Houari
3    السعادة Es-Saada
4    المقري Al-Maqarri
5    الحمري El-Hamri
6    البدر El-Badr
7    الصديقية Es-Seddikia
8    المنزه El-Menzeh
9    الأمير El-Emir
10    العثمانية El-Othmania
11    بوعمامة Bouamama
12    محي الدين Muhieddine

Medina Jedida

Medina Jedida [fr] or, new city in English, is a large historical and popular district. It was one of the Muslim quarters during the French colonial period. In this district, there is one of the biggest markets in the country, called Le Marché de Medina Jedida (Medina Jedida Market).

El Hamri

Mosque of Hassan Basha

El Hamri is a large and popular district in the center of Oran, known under French rule as Lamur. The football club Mouloudia d'Oran is found there.

Neighborhood streets

  • Avenue of Lamur
  • Street Captain-Rahou
  • Sebbalet Ayada
  • Place The Sahara
  • Gahwat Ettoubi
  • Street Staoueli
  • Street Djemaa Gazouna
  • Street Bougandoura
  • Street Belhadri Smain

Sidi El Houari

The historical district Sidi El Houari [es] is a suburb in the north of the d'Oran city. The Saint-Louis college is there, as well as the old mosque of the Pasha dating from the 17th century. In this district the skin of Saint-Patron of the city in the name of "Sidi El Houari" rests. Other tourist curiosities: one ancient prefecture of the data base Stalingrad, the Spanish vestiges dating from the 16th century, and especially the Palate of the Bey d'Oran.

Oranian agglomeration

Fort Mers el-Kebir
Madagh Beach (West of Oran)
The Great Library (ex. Cathédrale Sacré-Cœur d'Oran)

The Oranian metropolis comprises several communes.

Mers El-Kébir

Mers El Kébir ("The Great Port") is a municipality northwest of Oran, about seven kilometres (4+1⁄2 mi) from the city centre. As its name indicates, it is a major port and has an important naval base, home to the Algerian Navy.

Aïn El-Turk

Aïn El Turk ("Fountain of the Turks") is also northwest of Oran, at a distance of 15 km (9 mi). It is a seaside town which includes several hotels and other tourist attractions.

Es-Sénia

Es Sénia, located in the south of Oran, is home to industrial parks, several university institutes (Oran-Es-Sénia University, Institut of Communication, ENPO "National Polytechnic School of Oran", CRASC "Research center in social sciences" etc.) and the international airport.

View of part of Oran from the Summit of Murdjajo

Bir El-Djir

Bir El Djir is a commune that represents the suburbs of Oran (apart from the districts). It is the future beating heart of the Oranian agglomeration. It has several buildings which are the seats of institutions as the headquarters of Sonatrach's downstream activity, the hospital Établissement Hospitalo-universitaire "November 1st, 1954", the convention center (Palais des Congrès), University of sciences and technology (conceived by the Japanese architect Kenzō Tange), the Institute of medical sciences, the Court of Justice and the National Centre of Research in Social and Cultural Anthropology. There is as well a sports complex with an Olympic stadium of 50000 places created for the 2022 Mediterranean Games.

Bir El Djir is an urban extension east of Oran, 8 km (5 mi) from the city center, with a population of 118,000 inhabitants.

Misserghin

Misserghin is a small city located to the southwest of Oran.

Mediterranean side – Oran
Panorama of sea front at Oran, Algeria

Transportation

See also: Port of Wahran
Railway station in Oran

The city's public transportation is centered on the

Oran tramway covering suburbs not yet served by the metro. There is an extensive network of "clandestine" taxis in the City. A project started in 2008/9 and lasted approximately two to three years, to deliver the first line of the tramway in 2010. It should comprise 31 stations over a distance of 17.7 km (11 mi) going to Es-Sénia, in the South and Sidi Maarouf in the east side, while passing by the centre town The tramway should serve Haï Sabbah, University of Sciences and Technology (USTO), the Crossroads of the Three Private clinics, the Law courts, Dar El Baïda, the Plate-Saint Michel, the Place of the 1st November, Saint-Anthony, Boulanger, Saint-Hubert, the 3rd Ring road and finally The University of Es-Sénia. The Ahmed Ben Bella Airport, also known as Es-Senia Airport, serves both domestic and international flights, with frequent connections to the capital Algiers, served by the public airline company Air Algerie
. The same company also has flights to many French cities (Marseille, Paris, Lyon, etc.) and other European and EMEA cities. The Es Senia Airport also serves passengers from most smaller towns in proximity to Oran (Sig, Mostaganem, Arzew, etc.). The airport building is a fairly limited construction and does not operate on a 24-h basis.

Sports

Oran is represented in association football by MC Oran.

Oran held its first international marathon on November 10, 2005. The event, sponsored by Toyota of Algeria, attracted runners from Morocco, Libya, Spain, France and Kenya. The marathon served to publicize the health benefits of running and to provide a novel form of public entertainment for the city's residents.

The Championnat d'Afrique d'Athlétisme was scheduled to be held in Oran in June 2021.

The

XIX Mediterranean Games
was held in Oran in 2022.

Culture

"Disco Maghreb" in Oran, 2017

The folk music Raï ("opinion" in Arabic), had its beginnings in Oran. This genre of music was formulated by shepherds in the 1930s through Arab and European influences. This music was surrounded by controversy due to women's key role in public performances of the music, as well as the hedonistic lyrics about love and alcohol. This led to strict governmental control in the area which led to arrests, injuries, and assassinations.[40] Many notable Raï musicians (including Cheb Hasni, Cheb Khaled, and Rachid Taha) hail from Oran. The violinist Akim el Sikameya was also born in Oran. One of Oran's most famous emigrants is Yves Saint Laurent.[41]

Cuisine

The traditional Algerian lemon sorbet creponne originated in Oran.

Representation in other media

Place 1er novembre (ex.Place d'Armes)
Chapelle Santa Cruz
  • The Minotaur
    describes life in Oran.
  • Albert Camus' 1947 novel The Plague presents a fictional tale of observations of a physician during the emergence and recession of bubonic plague in the 1940s in Oran.
  • El Gallardo Español (1615) by Miguel de Cervantes takes place in Oran. Other works from Cervantes mention the city, and during the first part of Don Quixote, the story of the captive takes place here.[42]
  • In the movie Casablanca (1942), the route for refugees fleeing to the Americas was Paris to Marseille, across the Mediterranean to Oran, then by train, auto or foot to Casablanca. If they acquired an exit visa, they went on to Lisbon from there.
  • Paul Bowles' 1949 novel The Sheltering Sky mainly takes place in Oran.
  • Part of
    Moriscos
    (Spanish Christians of Muslim descent) from Valencia. Oran is featured as a sun-blasted North African military stronghold. Capitán Diego Alatriste finds Oran to be manned by an impoverished garrison of Spanish Christians, living alongside Muslims (some fiercely loyal to Spain), and Sephardic Jews, descendants of refugees from the 1492 expulsions from Spain.
  • In the ITV drama series Hornblower, Lieutenant Hornblower is sent by Captain Pellew to Oran to obtain supplies, only to discover that the city was suffering from a bubonic plague epidemic.
  • The heroine of Geraldine Brooks' novel, Year of Wonders, emigrates to Oran after leaving her home village that was quarantined in 1666 due to the plague.
  • Joann Sfar's graphic novel The Rabbi's Cat 2 begins in Oran.
  • Kamel Daoud's novel The Meursault Investigation is set in a bar in Oran.[43]

Economy and infrastructure

Oran has become a major trading centre for the wider area, serving Arzew, the area's oil/gas port as well as Sonatrach, the country's biggest oil and gas company. Sonelgaz has built a new congress centre in Oran and in 2010 the 16th International Conference & Exhibition on Liquefied Natural Gas was held in the city of Oran, which attracted around 3,000 visitors and major companies from around the world.

To accommodate all visitors, new hotels are currently being constructed and floating hotels will be used in the future. With a growth in urbanization, water quality and management is being harmed in Oran; this change in water quality is affecting marine life and the state of beaches in this tourism driven city.[44]

The city and region participates in the R20 Regions of Climate Action, with goals focused on reduced waste valorization and energy efficiency.[45]

Tourism

Oran has numerous hotels in all categories, from luxury to basic, as well as many restaurants offering Algerian specialities and other foods. Tourists will also find a variety of cinemas, arts centres, the regional theatre, an open-air theatre, the Museum, the historic city centre of Oran, the district of Sidi El Houari, the municipal gardens, Médina Djedida with its artisanal products, the cathedral, Djebel Murdjadjo, and nearby seaside resorts.

Marseilles, Sète, Alicante and Almería, via the national company Algérie Ferries. The Great Mosque is another attraction for tourists. The Great Mosque was built in 1796 to celebrate the end of Spanish rule of the city.[46]

Attractions

The main museum in Oran is called Musée National Ahmend Zabana. Although often overlooked by tourists, it includes a natural history exhibit in addition to art pieces like mosaics and portraits.[41]

Bey's Palace is another favorite spot for tourists, situated in Sidi al-Houari in the city center. It is an Ottoman era palace built of Islamic architecture, consists of harem, guard towers and stucco-painted halls.[47]

Water

Further information: Water supply and sanitation in Algeria

Water supply in Oran has historically been stressed because of the lack of consistent rainfall.

wilaya of Oran is also equipped with five desalination plants, including the unit of Macta, with a maximum daily capacity of 500,000 m3.[50][51]

International relations

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Algeria

Twin towns – sister cities

Oran is

twinned with 21 cities:[52]

Partner cities

In addition, Oran has partnerships and cooperation with one city:

Notable residents

Below the list of some of many notable personalities of Oran:

  • Kaddour Bekhloufi (1934-2019), played international football for FLN football team
  • Miloud Mourad Benamara (born 1977), actor
  • Jean Benguigui 1944, French Actor
  • Pierre Bénichou (1938-2020), French journalist
  • Sirat Boumediène (1947-1995), actor
  • Hamou Boutlélis (1920-1957), nationalist militant for Algerian War
  • Albert Camus (1913-1960), French philosopher, author, and journalist
  • Alain Chabat (born 1958), French actor, director, screenwriter, producer and TV presenter
  • Étienne Daho (born 1956), French singer
  • Habib Draoua (1914-2008), co-founder of the ALN football team
  • Sidi El Houari (1350-1439), imam and patron saint of the city of Oran
  • Jean-Pierre Elkabbach (born 1937), French journalist
  • Maurice El Mediouni
    (born 1928), pianist, composer and interpreter of Andalusian, Raï, Sephardic and Arab music
  • Miloud El Mehadj (1909-2001), imam, writer and ulama
  • Tayeb El Mehadj (1881-1969), imam and ulama
  • Kader Firoud (1919-2005), professional footballer and manager
  • Henri Fouques-Duparc (1903-1976), French politician, deputy and mayor of Oran
  • Miloud Hadefi (1949-1994), international footballer and manager
  • Abderrahmane Hadj-Salah (1928-2017), linguist
  • Caïda Halima (1859-1944), great personality and business woman
  • Cheb Hasni (1968-1994), Raï singer
  • Blaoui Houari (1926-2017), singer-songwriter, composer and conductor
  • Khaled (born 1960), prominent Raï
    singer and multi-instrumentalist
  • Mustapha Moussa (born 1962), former boxer, first Algerian Olympic medalist
  • Armand Mouyal (1925–88), French world champion épée fencer
  • Ahmed Saber (1937-1969), singer-songwriter, composer, conductor and actor
  • Yves Saint Laurent (1936–2008), French fashion designer
  • Henri Stambouli (born 1961), former footballer and current manager
  • Ahmed Wahby (1921-1993), singer-songwriter, composer and conductor
  • Ahmed Zabana (1926-1956), nationalist militant who participated in the outbreak of the Algerian War
  • Belkacem Zeddour Mohamed Brahim (1923-1954), nationalist activist for Algerian War

See also

Notes

  1. ^ /ɔːˈrɑːn/ also UK: /əˈrɑːn, əˈræn/, US: /oʊˈrɑːn, oʊˈræn, ɔːˈrɒ̃/,[2][3][4][5] French: [ɔʁɑ̃]; Arabic: [wah.raːn]
  2. ^ Extremes are sourced from NOAA, Deutscher Wetterdienst, and Meteo Climat.

References

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  3. ^ "Oran". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  4. ^ "Oran" Archived 2019-04-15 at the Wayback Machine (US) and "Oran". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2020-08-05.
  5. ^ "Oran". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 15 April 2019.
  6. ^ "The provinces of Algeria and all cities of over 25,000 inhabitants". Citypopulation.de. Archived from the original on 2014-08-17. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
  7. doi:10.4000/eps.2408. Archived
    from the original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2018.
  8. ^ About Oran Archived 2008-01-29 at the Wayback Machine—from the city's website.
  9. ISBN 978-90-04-14476-7
    .
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  11. ISBN 978-1-4738-7217-2
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  12. ISBN 978-0-520-24490-0
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  13. ^ Schwartz, Carl (1 March 1867). "Mission Stations of the British Society". The Scattered Nation and Jewish Christian. London: Elliot Stock. p. 76. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
  14. ^
    ISBN 978-0-253-00146-7
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  18. ^ Benjamin Stora, Algeria, 1830–2000: A Short History (Cornell University Press, 2004) p105
  19. L'Express. Archived
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Bibliography

See also: Bibliography of the history of Oran

External links

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Oran.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Oran.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Oran".
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