Unification of Saudi Arabia

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Unification of Saudi Arabia
Part of the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I (1914–1918)
Aftermath of World War I

Present Saudi state (Saudi Arabia)
DateNovember 1901 – 14 June 1934
Location
Arabian Peninsula (including South Arabia), Mandatory Iraq, Transjordan and Kuwait
Result

Saudi takeover of central and northern parts of Arabia:

Belligerents

Supported by:
 United Kingdom[1][2]
Kingdom of Italy Italy[3]
 Soviet Union[4][5]

Sheikhdom of Kuwait

Kingdom of Hejaz Kingdom of Hejaz
(1916–1925)

Supported by:
 United Kingdom
 France		 Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire (until 1919)
Emirate of Jabal Shammar Emirate of Jabal Shammar
Supported by:
 Germany[6]
Kingdom of Yemen
Supported by:
Fascist Italy Italy[7]
Commanders and leaders
Sultan bin Bajad
Faisal al-Duwaish
Eqab bin Mohaya

Khaled bin Luai
Ali bin Hussein
Abdulaziz bin Mitab †
Emirate of Jabal Shammar Saud bin Abdulaziz
Emirate of Jabal Shammar Ajlan bin Mohammed
Al Ajlan †
 Kingdom of Yemen Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din
Kingdom of Yemen Ahmad bin Yahya
Strength
76,500 in 1925
150,000 in 1928
400,000 in 1932[12]		 38,000[citation needed] 23,000[13] 37,000[14]
Casualties and losses
Unknown Unknown
18,000+ killed in total[A][15]
Part of a series on the
History of Saudi Arabia
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The Unification of Saudi Arabia was a military and political campaign in which the various

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was proclaimed under the leadership of Abdulaziz, known in the West as Ibn Saud, creating what is sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State, to differentiate it from the Emirate of Diriyah, the First Saudi State and the Emirate of Nejd
, the Second Saudi State, also House of Saud states.

The Al-Saud had been in exile in the British-protected

Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz
from 1927 until it was further consolidated with al-Hasa into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.

It has often been claimed that this process caused some 400,000 to 800,000 casualties. However, recent research suggests that though bloody, the number of deaths and injuries was significantly lower.[16]

Background

See also:
Second Saudi State
Hussain bin Ali, the Sharif in Mecca and King of Hejaz
Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud. The founder of Saudi Arabia
in 1934 and the military leader of the unification of Saudi Arabia.

Following the

Nejd region of central Arabia, the First Saudi State conquered most of the Arabian Peninsula, culminating in the capture of the Muslim holy city of Mecca in 1802.[17]

The loss of Mecca was a significant blow to the prestige of the

Abdullah bin Saud, was later executed in Istanbul.[18]

The Al Saud survived in exile and went on to found the

Jebel Shammar were able to exploit. The Saudi leader, Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal, sought refuge in Ottoman Iraq in 1893.[19]

History

Saudi take over of Riyadh

Main article:
Battle of Riyadh (1902)
Map of tribes in the Arabian Peninsula circa. 1914

In 1901, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud–later to be known as

Ibn Saud–[a] asked the Emir of Kuwait for men and supplies for an attack on Riyadh. Already involved in several wars with the Rashidis, the Emir agreed to the request, giving Ibn Saud horses and arms. Although the exact number of men waxed and waned during the subsequent journey, he is believed to have left with around 40 men.[b]

In January 1902, Ibn Saud and his men reached Riyadh. With only a small force, he felt that the only way to take the city was to capture

Masmak fort and kill Ibn Ajlan, Chief of Riyadh, and having achieved these goals they successfully took the city within the night. With the capture of his family's ancestral home, Ibn Saud proved he possessed the qualities necessary to be a sheikh or emir: leadership, courage, and luck.[23][24] This marked the beginning of the third Saudi state. Ibn Saud's dominions became known as the Emirate of Riyadh[25] which lasted until 1921.[26]

Saudi–Rashidi War

Main article:
Saudi–Rashidi War

The Saudi–Rashidi War, also referred as the "First Saudi–Rashidi War" or the "Battles for Qasim", was engaged between the Saudi loyal forces of the newborn Sultanate of Nejd versus the Emirate of Ha'il (Jabal Shammar), under the Rashidis. The warfare period of sporadic battles ended with Saudi takeover of the

Al-Qassim Region, after decisive victory in Qasim on 13 April 1906,[27]
though other engagements followed into 1907.

Al-Hasa and Qatif

Main article: Conquest of al-Hasa

In 1913, Ibn Saud, with support from the

Sunni Ottomans.[28]

Kuwait–Najd War

Main articles: Kuwait–Najd War and Uqair Protocol of 1922

The Kuwait-Najd War occurred because Ibn Saud wanted to annex Kuwait.[31][32] Ibn Saud insisted that Kuwait's territory belonged to him.[32] The sharpened conflict between Kuwait and Najd led to the death of hundreds of Kuwaitis. The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–1920.[33]

Following Kuwait–Najd War, Ibn Saud imposed a tight trade blockade against Kuwait for 14 years from 1923 until 1937.[31][34] The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible.[31] At the Uqair conference in 1922, the boundaries of Kuwait and Najd were set.[31] Kuwait had no representative at the Uqair conference.[31] Ibn Saud persuaded Sir Percy Cox to give him two-thirds of Kuwait's territory due to his de facto control of it.[31] More than half of Kuwait was lost due to Uqair.[31] After the Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudi raiding.[31]

During World War I

Main articles:
Second Saudi-Rashidi War (1915-1918), and Battle of Kanzan
Arabia at the end of WWI

In December, the British government (started early 1915) attempted to cultivate favor with Ibn Saud via its secret agent, Captain

Persia, with the exception of imperial possessions and interests in Kuwait, Aden, and the Syrian coast. Contrary to its negotiations with Ali, the British entered into the Treaty of Darin
, which made the lands of the House of Saud a British protectorate. Ibn Saud pledged to again make war against Ibn Rashid, who was an ally of the Ottomans. Ibn Saud was also given a sum of £20,000 upon signing the treaty as well as a monthly stipend of £5000 in exchange for waging war against Ibn Rashid.

First Nejd–Hejaz War

Main article: Al-Khurma dispute

The First Saudi-Hashemite War or the

Abdulaziz Al Saud of the Emirate of Nejd and the Hashemites of the Kingdom of Hejaz. The war came within the scope of the historic conflict between the Hashemites of Hejaz and the Saudis of Riyadh (Nejd) over supremacy in Arabia.[35]
It resulted in the defeat of the Hashemite forces and capture of al-Khurma by the Saudis and his allied Ikhwan, but British intervention prevented the immediate collapse of the Hashemite kingdom, establishing a sensitive cease-fire, which would last until 1924.

Conquest of Ha'il

Main article: Conquest of Ha'il
See also:
Jabal Shammar

Conquest of Ha'il, also referred as the Third Saudi–Rashidi War, was engaged by the

Emirate of Ha'il
(Jabal Shammar), under the last Rashidi rulers. On 2 November 1921, Jebel Shammar was completely conquered by Saudi forces and subsequently incorporated into the Sultanate of Nejd.

Ikhwan raids

Raids on Transjordan

Main article: Ikhwan raids on Transjordan

Ikhwan raids on Transjordan were a series of plunders by the Ikhwan, irregular Arab tribesmen of Najd, on Transjordan between 1922 and 1924. Though the raids were not orchestrated by Ibn Saud, the ruler of Nejd, nothing was done by him to stop the raiding parties of his ally Ikhwanis. This however changed after the conquest of Hejaz, when the increasingly critical and negative stance of Ibn Saud on Ikhwan raids developed into an open feud and essentially a bloody conflict since 1927.

In the early 1920s, the repeated

air force, at Marka, close to Amman.[36]

1921 raid on Mandatory Iraq

In 1921, an Ikhwan party raided southern Iraq which was under the British mandate, pillaging Shia villages, resulting in the massacre of 700 Shias.[37]

Second Nejd–Hejaz War

Main article: Saudi conquest of Hejaz

The Saudi conquest of Hejaz was a campaign, engaged by Saudi Sultan

Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz
, though they were administered as separate units.

Ikhwan rebellion

Main article:
Ikhwan Revolt
Ikhwan Revolt against the alliance of the British Empire, Kuwait and Ibn Saud

As Saudi expansion slowed in the 1920s, some among the Ikhwan pushed for continued expansion, particularly to the British-controlled territories such as

Otaiba
tribe, the leaders of the Ikhwan, were among those who accused Abdulaziz of going "soft", with the former reportedly telling the latter that the Saudis were "as much use as camel bags without handles".

A

Grand Mosque Seizure.[c][39]

Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Main article: Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

From 1927 to 1932, Ibn Saud administered the two main portions of his realm, Nejd and the Hejaz, as separate units. On 23 September 1932, Ibn Saud proclaimed the union of his dominions into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud's eldest son Saud became crown prince in 1933.[40]

Aftermath

Annexation of Asir

Further information:
Idrisid Emirate
Asir, Hejaz, and Nejd

The region of

Idrisid Emirate under Saudi tutelage.[41] The emirate was subsumed by the Saudi state following a 1930 treaty which provided for the territory to come under Ibn Saud's direct control upon its emir's death.[40]
The Emirate was eventually incorporated into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1934.

Saudi–Yemeni War

Main article:
Saudi–Yemeni War (1934)

With the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, a

Sanaa, Damascus, and Cairo to highlight its pan-Arabism.[44][45]

Remarking on the implications of the treaty, which stated "that [the two parties'] nations are one and agree to consider each other's interests their own", Kohn wrote, "The foreign policy of both kingdoms will be brought into line and harmonized so that both countries will act as one country in foreign affairs. Practically, it will mean a

civil war erupted in Yemen in the 1960s, at which time the country became a staging ground for battle between conservative values and those of the Egyptian revolutionary Gamal Abdel Nasser.[46]

Ikhwan movement

Main article: Ikhwan

The exact circumstances under which the Ikhwan (brothers, brethren) arose remain unclear. However, it is known that they consisted of

Wahhabi zeal at settlements known as hijras. They played an important role in the Saudi rise to power, though the extent of that role is sometimes disputed.[47]

See also

Footnotes

[A].^ Unification of Saudi Arabia (combined casualties figure estimation 7,989–8,989+) of:

Battle of Riyadh (1902)
– 37 killed.
Battle of Dilam (1903) – 410 killed.
Saudi–Rashidi War
(1903–1907) – 2,300+ killed.
Annexation of Al-Hasa and Qatif (1913) – unknown.
Battle of Jarrab (1915)
Battle of Kanzan (1915)
First Nejd-Hijaz War (1918–1919) – 1,392 killed.[15]
1921 Ikhwan raid on Mandatory Iraq – 700 killed.
Kuwait–Nejd Border War (1921) – 200+ killed.[15]
Conquest of Ha'il (1921) – unknown.
Ikhwan raids on Transjordan (1922–1924) – 500–1,500 killed.
Saudi conquest of Hejaz (1924–1925) – 450+ killed.[15]
Ikhwan Revolt (1927–1930) – 2,000 killed.[15]

Notes

  1. ^ "Ibn" means "son" in Arabic and thus "Ibn Saud" means "Son of Saud" (see Arabic name). Although Westerners widely referred to Abdulaziz as Ibn Saud in later years, "the clan chieftain's title of Ibn Sa'ud continued to refer to Abdul Rahman until he had established himself as such."[20] Abdulaziz never referred to himself by this title, and some authors (e.g. Helms 1981, p. 14), avoid using it entirely.
  2. Chanson de Roland wove his epic, for even today it remains the pleasant obstinacy of the Arab to be less captivated by the distinction between fact and fiction than by mystery, romance, poetry, imagination – and even downright caprice."[22]
  3. ^ The origins of this event with the Ikhwan dissenters are described in multiple sources, though Lacey 2009 contains one of the most up-to-date accounts. For more information on the Grand Mosque Seizure itself, see The Siege of Mecca by Yaroslav Trofimov.

References

  1. ^ Peter W. Wilson, Douglas Graham. Saudi Arabia: the coming storm . M.E.Sharpe, 1994: p.45
  2. ^ Leatherdale, Clive. and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: the Imperial Oasis. p.115.
  3. ^ Chisholm, Hugh (25 March 2018). "The Encyclopedia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general information". The Encyclopedia Britannica Co.
  4. ^ Barmin, Yury. "How Moscow lost Riyadh in 1938". www.aljazeera.com.
  5. ^ "Karim Hakimov – "Red Pasha" and the Arabian Vizier of the Kremlin". islam-russia.com.
  6. ^ "The Story of the Shammar Tribe, the Indigenous Inhabitants of the Region". رصيف 22. 14 March 2018.
  7. ^ Almana 1982, p. 271.
  8. ^ Upbringing & Education 1902–1915 Archived 12 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine – The King Saud Foundation Website
  9. S2CID 218601838. Archived from the original
    (PDF) on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2012.
  10. ^ a b Al Kahtani, Mohammad Zaid (December 2004). "The Foreign Policy of King Abdulaziz" (PDF). University of Leeds. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  11. ISBN 81-901254-0-0
    .
  12. ^ "الجيش السعودي.. من قوة «الإخوان» إلى القوة النظامية". Arsharq Al-Awsat. 9 October 2009. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015.
  13. ^ Murphy, David (2008). The Arab Revolt 1916-18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze. Osprey Publishing. p. 26.
  14. ISBN 9780195360707
    .
  15. ^ a b c d e "University of Central Arkansas, Middle East/North Africa/Persian Gulf Region". Archived from the original on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
  16. S2CID 149088619
    .
  17. ^ Vassiliev 1998, pp. 83–103
  18. ^ Vassiliev 1998, pp. 140–191
  19. ^ Vassiliev 1998, pp. 198–204
  20. ^ Lacey 1982, p. 65.
  21. ^ Lacey 1982, p. 41.
  22. ^ Lacey 1982, p. 47.
  23. ^ Troeller 1976, p. 21.
  24. ^ Vassiliev 1998, p. 213.
  25. ^ Madawi Al-Rasheed 2002, p. 40.
  26. ^ J. A. Hammerton. Peoples of All Nations: Their Life Today And Story of Their Past (in 14 Volumes). Concept Publishing Company, 2007. p. 193.
  27. ^ Mikaberidze 2011, p. 807.
  28. ^
    West Point / American Civil Liberties Union
    .
  29. ^ Commins 2006, p. 211.
  30. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0
    .
  31. ^
    ISBN 9780899305103
    .
  32. ^
    ISBN 9781573567473
    .
  33. ISBN 9781525526473
    .
  34. ISBN 9781109229349
    .
  35. ^ Mikaberidze 2011, p. 800.
  36. ^ a b Salibi, Kamal S. The modern history of Jordan. p. 104
  37. ISBN 978-1443871181
    .
  38. ^ Lacey 2009, pp. 14–16.
  39. S2CID 163081762
    .
  40. ^ a b Vassiliev 1998, pp. 283–285
  41. ^ Vassiliev 1998, pp. 259–260
  42. ^ Kohn 1934, p. 101
  43. ^ Vassiliev 1998, p. 285
  44. ^ Vassiliev 1998, pp. 285–286
  45. ^ a b Kohn 1934, p. 102
  46. ^ Vassiliev 1998, pp. 362–366
  47. ^ Commins 2006, pp. 80–94.

Sources

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Atlas of Saudi Arabia.
  • House of Saud, a 2005 documentary by PBS'
    Frontline
    . Website includes interviews and an excerpt containing the chapter on the Ikhwan.
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