United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | ||
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NPT party Yes (1968, one of five recognised powers) | |
Nuclear weapons |
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Background |
Nuclear-armed states |
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The
Biological weapons
During the
Offensive weapons development continued after the war into the 1950s with tests of
In particular, five sets of trials took place at sea using aerosol clouds and animals.
- Operation Harness off Antigua in 1948–1949.
- trawler Carella unknowingly sailed through a cloud of pneumonic plague bacilli (Yersinia pestis) during this trial. It was kept under covert observation until the incubation period had elapsed but none of the crew fell ill.[6]
- Operation Hesperus off Stornoway in 1953.
- Operation Ozone off Nassau in 1954.
- Operation Negation off Nassau in 1954–1955.
The program was canceled in 1956 when the British government renounced the use of biological and chemical weapons. In 1974,
Chemical weapons
The UK was a signatory of the
Britain used a range of poison gases, originally
After the war, the
The UK ratified the Geneva Protocol on 9 April 1930. The UK signed the Chemical Weapons Convention on 13 January 1993 and ratified it on 13 May 1996.
Despite the signing of the Geneva Protocol, the UK carried out extensive testing of chemical weapons from the early 1930s onwards. In the Rawalpindi experiments, hundreds of Indian soldiers were exposed to mustard gas in an attempt to determine the appropriate dosage to use on battlefields. Many of the subjects suffered severe burns from their exposure to the gas.[8]
Many ex-servicemen have complained about suffering long-term illnesses after taking part in tests on nerve agents. It was alleged that before volunteering they were not provided with adequate information about the experiments and the risk, in breach of the Nuremberg Code of 1947. Alleged abuses at Porton Down became the subject of a lengthy police investigation called Operation Antler, which covered the use of volunteers in testing a variety of chemical weapons and countermeasures from 1939 until 1989. An inquest was opened on 5 May 2004 into the death on 6 May 1953 of a serviceman, Ronald Maddison, during an experiment using sarin. His death had earlier been found by a private MoD inquest to have been as a result of "misadventure" but this was quashed by the High Court in 2002. The 2004 hearing closed on 15 November, after a jury found that the cause of Maddison's death was "application of a nerve agent in a non-therapeutic experiment".
Nuclear weapons
British nuclear weapons are designed and developed by the UK's
Each submarine carries up to sixteen
The British-designed warheads are thought to be selectable between 0.3
The United Kingdom is one of the five "Nuclear Weapons States" (NWS) under the
The UK permits the U.S. to deploy nuclear weapons from its territory, the first having arrived in 1954.
In March 2007, the UK Parliament voted to
On 25 February 2020, the UK released a Written Statement outlining that the current UK nuclear warheads will be replaced and will match the US Trident SLBM and related systems.[16]
In March 2021, the British government published the Integrated Review, titled Global Britain in a Competitive Age, which reaffirmed the government's commitment to upgrading and maintaining Trident as a continuous at-sea deterrent. The review also announced that the cap for the UK's stockpile of nuclear warheads would rise from 180 to 260 — the first time it has risen since the Cold War[17] — due to the "evolving security environment".[18]
See also
References
- ^ "The British Nuclear Stockpile, 1953-2013", Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 1 July 2013
- ^ a b "Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance". Arms Control Association. ACA. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
- ^ "Global nuclear weapons: downsizing but modernizing". SIPRI. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
- ^ "Britain to expand nuclear warhead stockpile by over 40% as global threats rise". Reuters. March 16, 2021 – via www.reuters.com.
- ^ Changing Direction: British Military Planning for Post-war Strategic Defence, 1942-47 by Julian Lewis
- ^ Fenton, Ben (2005-09-20). "Trawler steamed into germ warfare site and no one said a word". London: Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2012-06-30. Retrieved 26 May 2010.
- ^ "British Relations with Iraq". BBC News. February 10, 2003.
- ^ Rosenberg, Jennifer (September 4, 2007). "Mustard Gas Tested on Indian Soldiers".
- ^ Assistant Director (Deterrence Policy) (19 July 2005), Freedom of Information request about the UK nuclear deterrent (PDF), Ministry of Defence, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2012, retrieved 2013-11-20
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has generic name (help) - ^ "How serious was the Trident missile test failure?". UK Defence Journal. 22 January 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2017.
- ^ "Royal Navy welcomes US Navy Admiral to Edinburgh Tattoo". Royal Navy. 25 August 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
- U.S. Department of Defense, retrieved 2006-05-23
- ^ Hans M. Kristensen (February 2005), U.S. Nuclear Weapons in Europe (PDF), Natural Resources Defense Council, retrieved 2006-05-23
- ^ Trident plan wins Commons support, BBC News, March 14, 2007, retrieved 2006-05-23
- ^ "Britain plans to spend £3bn on new nuclear warheads", The Guardian (London), 25 July 2008
- ^ "Nuclear Deterrent". hansard.parliament.uk. UK Hansard. 25 February 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2020.
- ^ "UK To Increase Its Nuclear Warhead Stockpile For The First Time Since The Cold War: Report" (PDF). The Wire. 16 March 2021. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
- ^ "Global Britain in a Competitive Age: the Integrated Review of Security, Defence, Development and Foreign Policy". GOV.UK. Cabinet Office. 16 March 2021.
Further reading
- Boudeau, Carole. "Missing the logic of the text: Lord Butler’s report on intelligence on Iraqi weapons of mass destruction." Journal of Language and Politics 11.4 (2012): 543–561.
- Fidler, David P. "International law and weapons of mass destruction: end of the arms control approach." Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 14 (2004): 39+ online.
- Jones, Matthew. The Official History of the UK Strategic Nuclear Deterrent: Volume I: From the V-Bomber Era to the Arrival of Polaris, 1945-1964 (Taylor & Francis, 2017).
- Jones, Matthew. The Official History of the UK Strategic Nuclear Deterrent: Volume II: The Labour Government and the Polaris Programme, 1964-1970 (Taylor & Francis, 2017).
- Salisbury, Daniel. Secrecy, Public Relations and the British Nuclear Debate: How the UK Government Learned to Talk about the Bomb, 1970-83 (Routledge, 2020).
External links
- Video archive of the UK's Nuclear Testing at sonicbomb.com
- FAS bulletin
- The Nuclear Threat Initiative on the United Kingdom
- Churchill's Anthrax Bombs - A Debate by Julian Lewis and Professor RV Jones
- The Plan that Never Was: Churchill and the 'Anthrax Bomb' by Julian Lewis
- Nuclear Files.org Current information on nuclear stockpiles in the United Kingdom