United States occupation of Nicaragua
United States occupation of Nicaragua | |||||||
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Part of the Augusto C. Sandino in 1932 | |||||||
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Belligerents | |||||||
United States Nicaragua |
Liberal Party (1912–1927) EDSN (1927–1933) | ||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
William Henry Hudson Southerland Smedley Butler |
Benjamín Zeledón (1912) Luis Mena (1912) Augusto César Sandino (1927–1933) | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
First occupation (1912–1925): 7 killed (5 marines & 2 sailors) 16 marines wounded (all in 1912)[1] Second occupation (1926–1933): 136 marines killed (32 killed-in-action, 15 died of wounds, and 5 murdered by mutinous National Guardsmen)[2] 75 killed (Nicaraguan National Guardsmen)[2] |
First occupation (1912–1925): unknown Second occupation (1926–1933): 1,115 killed (presumably Sandinistas. This number may have been inflated.)[3] |
The United States occupation of Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933 was part of the
Nicaragua assumed a quasi-protectorate status under the 1916 Bryan–Chamorro Treaty. President Herbert Hoover (1929–1933) opposed the relationship. On January 2, 1933, Hoover ended the American intervention.[4]
Conflicts in Nicaragua
Estrada's rebellion (1909)
In 1909 Nicaraguan President
The forces of Emiliano Chamorro Vargas and Nicaraguan General Juan Estrada, each leading conservative revolts against Zelaya's government, had captured three small towns on the border with Costa Rica and were fomenting open rebellion in the capital of Managua.[8] U.S. Naval warships that had been waiting off Mexico and Costa Rica moved into position.[9]
The protected cruisers
Zelaya resigned on December 14, 1909,
As the flagship of the Nicaraguan Expeditionary Squadron, under Admiral William W. Kimball, Albany spent the next five months in Central America, mostly at Corinto, maintaining U.S. neutrality in the ongoing rebellion, sometimes under criticism by the U.S. press and business interests that were displeased by Kimball's "friendly" attitude toward the liberal Madriz administration.[20][21][22] By mid-March 1910, the insurgency led by Estrada and Chamorro had seemingly collapsed and with the apparent and unexpected strength of Madriz, the U.S. Nicaraguan Expeditionary Squadron completed its withdrawal from Nicaraguan waters.[23]
On May 27, 1910, U.S. Marine Corps Major Smedley Butler arrived on the coast of Nicaragua with 250 Marines, for the purpose of providing security in Bluefields. United States Secretary of State Philander C. Knox condemned Zelaya's actions, favoring Estrada. Zelaya succumbed to U.S. political pressure and fled the country, leaving José Madriz as his successor. Madriz in turn had to face an advance by the reinvigorated eastern rebel forces, which ultimately led to his resignation. In August 1910, Juan Estrada became president of Nicaragua with the official recognition of the United States.[24]
Mena's rebellion (1912)
Estrada's administration allowed President
By 1912 the ongoing political conflict in Nicaragua between the liberal and conservative factions had deteriorated to the point that U.S. investments under President Taft's Dollar Diplomacy including substantial loans to the fragile coalition government of conservative President Juan José Estrada were in jeopardy. Minister of War General Luis Mena forced Estrada to resign. He was replaced by his vice president, the conservative Adolfo Díaz.[25]: 143
Díaz's connection with the United States led to a decline in his popularity in Nicaragua. Nationalistic sentiments arose in the Nicaraguan military, including Luis Mena, the Secretary of War. Mena managed to gain the support of the National Assembly, accusing Díaz of "selling out the nation to New York bankers". Díaz asked the U.S. government for help, as Mena's opposition turned into rebellion. Knox appealed to president Taft for military intervention, arguing that the Nicaraguan railway from Corinto to Granada was threatened, interfering with U.S. interests.[25]: 144
In mid-1912 Mena persuaded the Nicaraguan
Díaz, relying on the U.S. government's traditional support of the Nicaraguan conservative faction, made clear that he could not guarantee the safety of U.S. persons and property in Nicaragua and requested U.S. intervention. In the first two weeks of August 1912, Mena and his forces captured steamers on
At the time the revolution broke out, the Pacific Fleet gunboat USS Annapolis (PG-10) was on routine patrol off the west coast of Nicaragua. In the summer of 1912, 100 U.S. Marines arrived aboard the USS Annapolis. They were followed by Smedley Butler's return from Panama with 350 Marines. The commander of the American forces was Admiral William Henry Hudson Southerland, joined by Colonel Joseph Henry Pendleton and 750 Marines. The main goal was securing the railroad from Corinto to Managua.
1912 occupation
On August 4, at the recommendation of the Nicaraguan president, a landing force of 100
On August 29, 1912, a landing force of 120 men from USS Denver, under the command of the ship's navigator, Lieutenant Allen B. Reed, landed at Corinto to protect the railway line running from Corinto to Managua and then south to Granada on the north shore of Lake Nicaragua. This landing party reembarked aboard ship October 24 and 25, 1912. One officer and 24 men were landed from the Denver at San Juan del Sur on the southern end of the Nicaraguan isthmus from August 30 to September 6, 1912, and from September 11 to 27, 1912 to protect the cable station, custom house and American interests.[34][35][36] Denver remained at San Juan del Sur to relay wireless messages from the other navy ships to and from Washington[37] until departing on September 30, for patrol duty.[38]
On the morning of September 22, two battalions of Marines and an artillery battery under Major
On October 2, Nicaraguan government troops loyal to President Diaz delivered a surrender ultimatum to Zelaydón, who refused. Rear Admiral Southerland realized that Nicaraguan government forces would not vanquish the insurgents by bombardment or infantry assault, and ordered the Marine commanders to prepare to take the hills.[40][41]
On October 3, Butler and his men, returning from the capture of Granada, pounded the hills with artillery throughout the day, with no response from the insurgents. In the pre-dawn hours of October 4, Butler's 250 Marines began moving up the higher hill, Coyotepe, to converge with Pendletons's 600 Marines and a landing battalion of bluejackets from California. At the summit, the American forces seized the rebel's artillery and used it to rout Zeledón's troops on Barranca across the valley.[42]
Zeledón and most of his troops had fled the previous day during the bombardment, many to Masaya, where Nicaraguan government troops captured or killed most of them, including Zeledón. With the insurgents driven from Masaya, Southerland ordered the occupation of Leon to stop any further interference with the U.S.-controlled railroad. On October 6, 1,000 bluejackets and Marines, from the cruisers
On October 23, Southerland announced that but for the Nicaraguan elections in early November, he would withdraw most of the U.S. landing forces. At that point, peaceful conditions prevailed and nearly all of the embarked U.S. Marines and bluejackets that had numbered approximately 2,350 at their peak, not including approximately 1,000 shipboard sailors, withdrew, leaving a legation guard of 100 Marines in Managua.[40][41][43]
Of the 1,100 members of the United States military that intervened in Nicaragua, thirty-seven were killed in action. With Díaz safely in the presidency of the country, the United States proceeded to withdraw the majority of its forces from Nicaraguan territory, leaving one hundred Marines to "protect the American legation in Managua".
The Knox-Castrillo Treaty of 1911, ratified in 1912, put the U.S. in charge of much of Nicaragua's financial system.[44]
In 1916, General Emiliano Chamorro Vargas, a Conservative, assumed the presidency, and continued to attract foreign investment.[44] Some Marines remained in the country after the intervention, occasionally clashing with local residents. In 1921, a group of Marines who raided a Managua newspaper office were dishonorably discharged.[45] Later that year, a Marine private shot and killed a Nicaraguan policeman.[46]
1927 occupation
Government forces were defeated on February 6 at
On June 30, Sandino seized the San Albino gold mine, denounced the Conservative government, and attracted recruits to continue operations.[25]: 308 The next month saw the Battle of Ocotal. Despite additional conflict with Sandino's rebels, U.S.-supervised elections were held on November 4, 1928, with Moncada the winner.[25]: 349 Manuel Giron was captured and executed in February 1929, and Sandino took a year's leave in Mexico.[25]: 350–351 By 1930, Sandino's guerilla forces numbered more than 5,000 men.[44]
The only American journalist who interviewed Sandino during this occupation was Carleton Beals of The Nation.[47]
Calvin Coolidge sent U.S. Marines to Nicaragua.[48][49][50]
The Hoover administration started a U.S. pullout such that by February 1932, only 745 men remained.[25]: 354 Juan Sacasa was elected president in the November 6, 1932, election.[25]: 359 The Battle of El Sauce was the last major engagement of the U.S. intervention.[25]: 360
See also
- American imperialism
- History of Nicaragua
- Nicaraguan Campaign Medal
- Overseas interventions of the United States
- Second Nicaraguan Campaign Medal
- United States involvement in regime change
- United States-Latin American relations
- Nicaragua v. United States
- Nicaragua–United States relations
References
- ^ Boot, Max (May 27, 2003). The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power. New York City: Basic Books. p. 148.
- ^ a b Macaulay, Neill (February 1998). The Sandino Affair. Chicago: Quadrangle Books. p. 239.
- ^ Macaulay, Neill (February 1998). The Sandino Affair. Chicago: Quadrangle Books. pp. 239–240.
- ^ Andrew Glass, "Marines withdraw from Nicaragua, Jan. 2, 1933" Politico (2019) [1]
- ISBN 0-8420-5046-9.
- ^ "The Citizen, Honesdale, PA December 1, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 1, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The New York Times, November 23, 1909" (PDF). Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Ogden Standard, December 8, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 8, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Ogden Standard, November 27, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. November 27, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The San Francisco Call, December 14, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 14, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Hawaiian Star, December 13, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 13, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The San Francisco Call, December 15, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 15, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "Los Angeles Herald, December 15, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 15, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ [2] New York Tribune, December 17, 1909.
- ^ "New York Tribune, December 21, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 21, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ The Los Angeles Herald December 21, 1909.
- ^ "The Pensacola Journal, December 17, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 17, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Los Angeles Herald, December 26, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 26, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Los Angeles Tribune, December 21, 1909". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. December 26, 1909. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Salt Lake Tribune, January 14, 1910". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. January 14, 1910. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Washington Herald, January 29, 1910". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. January 29, 1910. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ Navy Dept, United States (1910). "Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the Fiscal Year 1910, p. 803". Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Marion Daily Mirror, March 16, 1910". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. March 16, 1910. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ Langley, Lester D. (1983). The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 1900–1934. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-02-588210-2.
- ^ a b "Nicaragua: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993, edited by Tim Merrill". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ISBN 9780842050470. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
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- ^ "Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for 1912". Washington, For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off. July 21, 2010. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ISBN 9780842050470. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "El Paso Herald, August 29, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. August 29, 1912. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ISBN 9780824056247. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Washington Herald, August 27, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. August 27, 1912. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ List of Expeditions 1901–1929, Navy Department Library, Navy History & Heritage Command Archived December 3, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "El Paso Herald, August 30, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. August 30, 1912. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The New York Times, September 2, 1912" (PDF). Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The Washington Herald, September 1, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. September 1, 1912. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The New York Sun, October 1, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. October 1, 1912. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ "The San Francisco Call, October 7, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. October 7, 1912. p. 3. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9780824056247. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ ISBN 9780842050470. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ a b "The San Francisco Call, October 6, 1912". Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. October 7, 1912. p. 3. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
- ^ Sailors As Infantry in the U.S. Navy, The Navy Department Library Archived December 2, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b c Thiessen-Reily, Heather (2008). Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 822–833.
- ^ "Marines Sentenced For Managua Raid" (PDF). The New York Times. No. Vol. LXX, No. 23, 045. February 27, 1921. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
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has extra text (help) - ^ Nalty, Bernard C. The United States Marines in Nicaragua (PDF). Historical Branch, G-3, United States Marine Corps. p. 11. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
- ^ "Our Century: The Twenties". The Nation. 1999. Archived from the original on March 11, 2007.
- ^ "COOLIDGE CONFERS ON NICARAGUA CRISIS; NEW POLICY HINTED; Calls Kellogg and Wilbur After Stating Marines Landed to Protect Americans". The New York Times. December 29, 1926.
- ^ "COOLIDGE PREDICTS PEACE IN NICARAGUA; Tells Dr. Cesar, New Envoy, First Steps for Composing Differences Have Been Taken. DISCLAIMS SELFISH AIMS Says We Desire Freedom and Prosperity of Every Central American Republic. COOLIDGE PREDICTS PEACE IN NICARAGUA". The New York Times. January 21, 1927.
- ^ "Intervention in Nicaragua".