Universities in the United Kingdom
Universities in the United Kingdom have generally been instituted by
Institutions that hold degree awarding powers are termed recognised bodies, this list includes all universities, university colleges and colleges of the University of London, some higher education colleges, and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Degree courses may also be provided at listed bodies, leading to degrees validated by a recognised body. Undergraduate applications to almost all UK universities are managed by the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS).
While legally, 'university' refers to an institution that has been granted the right to use the title, in common usage it now normally includes colleges of the University of London, including in official documents such as the Dearing Report.[2][3]
The representative bodies for higher education providers in the United Kingdom are Universities UK, GuildHE and Independent Higher Education. The responsible minister within the Department for Education is the Minister of State for Skills, Apprenticeships and Higher Education, currently Robert Halfon.
History
Universities in Britain date back to the dawn of mediaeval studium generale, with Oxford and Cambridge taking their place among the world's oldest universities. No other universities were successfully founded in England during this period; opposition from Oxford and Cambridge blocked attempts to establish universities in Northampton[4] and Stamford.[5] Medical schools in London (i.e., Barts and St Thomas's), though not universities in their own right, were among the first to provide medical teaching in England.[6][7]
In Scotland,
The 18th century saw the establishment of medical schools at Edinburgh and Glasgow universities and at hospitals in London. A number of
19th-century expansion
The
In England, the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw the arrival of Catholic seminaries driven from the continent by the French Revolution and the establishment of the
By then, the higher education revolution was well under way. Between 1824 and 1834 ten medical schools were established in provincial cities; many of these went on to form the nuclei of the redbrick universities,[11] and in 1825 there was serious talk of founding a third English university in York.[12] This would, however, have required government support. The opinion of Robert Peel – cabinet minister and MP for Oxford University – was sought, and (after consulting with his constituents) he advised against proceeding.[13]
This period also saw the establishment of Mechanics Institutes in a number of cities. The first of these, established in Edinburgh in 1821, would eventually become Heriot-Watt University,[14] while the London Mechanics Institute, established in 1823, developed into Birkbeck, University of London.[15] Many others would eventually become polytechnics and then, in 1992, universities. The Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) opened at 309 Regent Street, London, in August 1838, to provide "practical knowledge of the various arts and branches of science connected with manufacturers, mining operations and rural economy".[16][17]
Very soon after news of the York scheme broke,
UCL was revolutionary not just in admitting non-Anglicans (indeed non-Anglicans were allowed to study at Cambridge, but not to take degrees, and UCL could not grant them degrees); it also pioneered the study of modern languages and of geography,[20] as well as appointing the first Professor of English Language and Literature, although the study of English Literature as a distinct subject was pioneered by King's College London.[21] Neither of the colleges was residential – a break from the two ancient English universities, although non-residential universities were the norm in Scotland.
In 1830, a Whig government was elected with Earl Grey as Prime Minister, and in early 1831 news broke that a charter was to be granted to the London University, officially recognising it as a university and thus enabling it to award degrees.[22] Cambridge voted to petition the King not to allow the awarding of degrees with the same name as theirs or Oxford's.[23] The charter was blocked.
Then, later in 1831, a plan was announced to found a university in Durham. Grey's government supported the bill to establish the university, despite it limiting its degrees to Anglicans. Thus the
In 1834, the House of Commons backed the granting of a charter to the London University. In 1835, the government responded by announcing its intention to establish the University of London as an examining board that would grant degrees to affiliated colleges and medical schools. This was done in 1836, with the old London University accepting a charter as a college under the name of University College, London.
The new University of London achieved one of the principal goals of the founders of UCL: it would award degrees without any religious test, the first university in England to do so. The first degrees were conferred in 1839 to students from UCL and King's College London. But from 1840 it affiliated other colleges and schools, opening up the possibility of degrees for many students who would not previously have attended a university. Another big step came in 1858 when the system of affiliated colleges was abandoned and London degrees were opened to any man who passed the examination. From 1878, University of London degrees were opened to women – the first in the United Kingdom.
In 1845, Queen's Colleges were established across Ireland: in Belfast, Cork and Galway, followed by the establishment of the Queen's University of Ireland in 1850 as a federal university encompassing the three colleges. In response, the Catholic University of Ireland (never recognised as a university by the British state, although granted degree awarding power by the Pope) was established in Dublin by the Catholic Church. This eventually led to the dissolution of the Queen's University in 1879 and its replacement by the Royal University of Ireland, an examining board after the pattern of the University of London.[24]
The first women's college was
Non-Anglicans were admitted to degrees at Oxford in 1854, Cambridge in 1856 and Durham in 1865. The remaining tests were (except in theology) removed by the Universities Tests Act 1871, allowing non-Anglicans to become full members of the university (membership of Convocation at Oxford and Durham or the Senate at Cambridge) and to hold teaching positions.[25][26]
An Act of Parliament was passed in 1858 that modernised the constitutions of all of the Scottish universities. Under this Act, the two universities in Aberdeen were united into the University of Aberdeen (explicitly preserving the foundation date of King's College) and the University of Edinburgh was made independent from the town corporation.
The first of the civic university colleges was the Anglican
In the late 1870s, Owens College applied for university status. After objections by other civic colleges, it was decided instead to erect the Victoria University as a federal body, with Owens College as, initially, its only college. It was joined by Liverpool in 1884 and Leeds in 1887.
In 1889, government funding was provided to the English provincial university colleges (with the exception of Queen's College, Birmingham), along with Dundee in Scotland, and UCL and King's College in London.[32] Government funding was already being provided to the ancient Scottish universities, the University of London, and to the Welsh and Irish colleges. Bedford College in London (1894),[33] Reading (1901)[34] and Southampton (1902)[35] were later added to the grant to university colleges.
In 1893, the University of Wales was established as another federal body, uniting the colleges in Aberystwyth, Cardiff and Bangor, but not St David's College, Lampeter.
The late 19th century saw UCL and King's College London campaigning for a say in how the University of London was run, alongside a campaign for a "teaching university" for London. Royal commissions were held and a charter was drawn up for the "Albert University" that would have seen the two colleges leave the University of London and form a federal body, like the colleges of the Victoria University. In the end it was decided to reform the University of London itself, this was put into effect by an Act of Parliament in 1898, leading to completely new statutes establishing the federal University of London in 1900.
20th century
1900 also saw Mason College, Birmingham (which had absorbed the Medical School from Queen's College in 1892) become the
The First World War caused financial crises in many British universities and university colleges. This led to the formation of the
Expansion after 1945
After the Second World War, there was an enormous expansion in the demand for higher education.[36] A final public university college was set up in Keele in 1949; this was the first university college to receive full degree awarding powers as a college rather than on becoming a university (St David's College, Lampeter, held limited degree awarding power from the mid 19th century, but could only award BA and BD degrees).
Between 1948 (
In 1973, the University College at Buckingham was established as a private sector, non-profit college, opening in 1976. It awarded "licences" that were externally examined in the same manner as degrees, rather than being associated with the University of London or another parent university like the earlier university colleges. In 1983, it became the UK's first private university after being granted a royal charter as the University of Buckingham.[37]
Since 1992
A major change to UK higher education occurred in 1992 with the abolition of the "binary divide" between universities and polytechnics. By the Further and Higher Education Act 1992, the polytechnics and the Scottish central institutions all became universities. These post-1992 (or "new") institutions nearly doubled the number of universities in the UK.
In 1993, the University of London underwent a major shake-up, with the larger colleges being granted direct access to government funding and the right to confer University of London degrees themselves. This was a major step towards their being recognised generally as de facto universities.
In 1997, Cardiff University (then the University of Wales, Cardiff) was granted degree awarding powers. This was the first time such powers had been granted to a constituent institution of a university (although the University of Wales, Lampeter held degree awarding powers, these were granted prior to it joining the federal university). Over the next decade, all of the constituent institutions of the University of Wales and many of those of the University of London gained their own degree awarding powers.
In 2005, Cardiff University left the University of Wales, which shifted to a confederal structure in 2007 before being essentially dissolved following a series of scandals in 2011. In 2007, Imperial College left the University of London, raising fears about the future of that federal institution. However, it has survived and attracted new members, although many of the larger colleges now award their own degrees. In 2016,
In 2018, The Guardian reported that hundreds of academics has been accused of bullying students and colleagues, leading to calls from Venki Ramakrishnan, president of the Royal Society, for an overhaul of workplace practices in universities and from Fiona Watt, chair of the Medical Research Council, for an annual national audit of bullying incidents.[38]
University funding from 1945
In the years following the end of the Second World War,
As the university population rose during the 1980s the sums paid to universities became linked to their performance and efficiency, and by the mid-1990s funding per student had dropped by 40% since the mid-1970s, while numbers of full-time students had reached around 2,000,000 (around a third of the age group), up from around 1,300,000.
In 1989, the levels of maintenance grants were frozen at £2,265 – which since 1985 had been
Following an investigation into the future of universities, the July 1997 report of the
Tuition fees were introduced in 1998, raised to £3,000 a year in 2006, and passed £9,000 a year by 2012.[41] At the time of the Dearing Report, tuition fees were still paid in full by the local education authorities, student grants of up to £1,755 (£2,160 in London) were linked to family income, and a subsidised student loan of £1,685 (£2,085 in London) was available. Instead of following Dearing's suggestions, the grant was replaced by the present loan scheme, introduced for students starting in 1998. There was a transition year when about half the previous means-tested grant was available, though they still had to pay the new £1,000 tuition fee. From 1999, the grant was abolished altogether.
The abolition of tuition fees was a major issue in the 1999 Scottish parliamentary elections, and subsequently was part of the agreement that led to the Labour/Liberal Democrats coalition that governed Scotland from 1999 to 2003.
From the academic year 2006/7, a new system of tuition fees was introduced in England. These
In 2010, the government voted to raise the amount universities can charge for undergraduate tuition fees (for England only) to between £6,000 – £9,000 per year though most charge the maximum.[43] In 2016, the government raised the cap on tuition fees to £9,250 from 2017, with tuition fees expected to continue rising in increments.[44][45]
Governance
Universities in the United Kingdom do not have a coherent system of funding or governance, and both remain heavily debated.[46] A growing body of other legal rights, for instance, for staff in reasonable expectations of fair procedure, or for students in fairness over the awarding of degrees, has grown through judicial review.
Degree awarding powers and university title
Both degree awarding powers and university title are controlled under UK law, and it is illegal for an institution to call itself a university or to purport to offer UK degrees without authorisation.[1][47] Higher education is a devolved power, so the rules for degree awarding powers and university title differ between the four countries of the United Kingdom.
In Scotland and Northern Ireland the last UK national standards (from 1999) still apply. Institutions may hold taught degree awarding powers, allowing them to award ordinary and honours bachelor's degrees and taught master's degrees, and research degree awarding powers, allowing them additionally to award master's degrees by research and doctoral degrees. Institutions with taught degree powers may be awarded the title of "university college", but for university title an institution must hold research degree awarding powers, as well as having over 4,000 full-time equivalent (FTE) students, with over 3,000 on degree -level courses and at least 500 higher education students in each of five broad subject areas. For both degree awarding powers and university title, the final decision is made by the
The rules in England and Wales diverged from those in Scotland and Northern Ireland in 2004 and were further modified in 2010 with the introduction of foundation degree awarding powers for further education colleges. Under these regulations, which remain in force in Wales, while taught and research degree awarding powers are awarded indefinitely to institutions in the publicly funded higher education sector, they are time limited to six years for other institutions (e.g. private colleges and universities) after which they must be renewed. The rules for university title allowed institutions holding only taught degree awarding powers to become universities in England and Wales from 2004, and the requirement for minimum student numbers across five broad subject areas was dropped. The overall higher education FTE student number criterion remained at 4,000, with 3,000 on degree-level courses (clarified to include foundation degrees, which has been introduced since the 1999 regulations). The final award of degree awarding powers continued to rest with the Privy Council; for university title it lay with the Privy Council for publicly funded institutions while alternative providers had to get permission to use University in their name under the Companies Act 2006, the recommendation in both cases coming from the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) via the relevant government department (in England) or from the Welsh Government.[50][51][52]
England diverged from Wales in 2012 with a reduction in the number of higher education FTE students needed for university title to 1,000 (750 on degree level courses), with the addition that at least 55% of total FTE students had to be on higher education courses.[53] There were further technical changes in 2015 before a complete overhaul of the system in England under the Higher Education and Research Act 2017. This saw the abolition of HEFCE and its replacement by the Office for Students (OfS). A new tier of degree awarding powers – bachelor's degree awarding powers, allowing the award of degrees up to level 6 on the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications – was introduced.
Under this act, degree awarding powers were made available on a probationary basis, termed "New DAPs" to providers without a track record in higher education, who had previously had to have a validation agreement with a recognised body to establish a track record prior to gaining their own powers. Providers with a track record of the years or more can apply for time-limited "Full DAPs" and those who have held time-limited date awarding powers for more than three years can apply for "Indefinite DAPs". Another change is that degree awarding powers can now be limited to some subjects rather than covering all possible degrees at that level as previously. There is also an intention to make it possible for institute to gain research degree awarding powers without taught degree awarding powers. New criteria for university title will apply for applications from April 2019, the government had started its intention that student numbers limits will be removed but that the criterion that 55 percent of students are on higher education courses will remain, and that providers with bachelor's degree awarding powers and single subject degree awarding powers will be eligible for university title. The OfS will take over the responsibility of granting degree awarding powers and university title from the Privy Council, and will also be responsible for the awarding of university title to institutions outside of the publicly-funded higher education sector. The act gives OfS the ability to remove indefinite degree awarding powers and university title from any institution in England, including those granted these by royal charter.[52][54][55]
Staff and student voice
"There is an expectation, often enshrined within the constitutional documents of HEIs, that governing bodies will contain staff and student members and encourage their full and active participation."[57]
Reforms were first put into law after an Oxford University commission of 1852 stated it must reverse "successive interventions by which the government of the University was reduced to a narrow oligarchy."[58] For example, since the Cambridge University Act 1856 set its rules in law,[59] that university's statutes require that its Regent House (mostly full-time university members) elects its governing body, the 23 member "Council". Four members are elected by heads of colleges, four by professors and readers, eight by other academic fellows, three by students, four by a "grace" (a vote) of the whole Regent House.[60]
In Scotland, the
In England and Wales, the pattern is more haphazard and often deficient in representation. The constitution of the
Vice-chancellor
The chancellorship of a university is a ceremonial position held by a prominent public figure. The actual executive responsibilities are borne by a vice-chancellor. In recent years, the role of the vice-chancellor has shifted from one of academic administration to strategic management.[66] Accompanying this shift has been a massive rise in remuneration. In 2019, the Office for Students reported that the average basic salary for a university vice chancellor rose ahead of inflation, from £245,000 a year to £253,000 a year, with five heads earning more than £500,000 with benefits and severance payments included.[67][68]
Funding
Before 1998, universities were funded mainly by central government, although they have been increasingly reliant on charging students and seeking to raise private capital. First, universities have the power to generate income through
Third, and most controversially, funding may come from charging students. From
There are five private universities (the charitable
Other legal rights
Rights to other standards go for staff, or students, universities are subject to both
Legal status
All UK universities are independent bodies. With the exception of three private for-profit universities, British universities are charities. UK universities have four principal charity regulators. For universities outside England, this is the relevant national regulator: the Charity Commission for England and Wales for Welsh universities;[96] the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator for Scottish Universities;[97] and the Charity Commission for Northern Ireland for both Northern Irish universities.[98]
In England, most (all but twenty, as of May 2018) higher education institutes are exempt charities that are not registered with the Charity Commission; the principal regulator for universities that are exempt charities is the Office for Students while for those that are not exempt it is the Charity Commission.[99] Both of the two charitable private universities in England are regulated by the Charity Commission.[100][101]
Universities in the UK have a wide variety of legal structures, leading to differences in their rights and powers, and in who is a member of the corporate body of the university.[102][103]
The most common form among "old" universities is incorporation by
Newcastle University is the only English university to be purely a statutory corporation, and the only "old" university not incorporated by royal charter, having been created by the Universities of Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Act 1963. Among London colleges, Royal Holloway, University of London was created in 1985 by the Royal Holloway and Bedford New College Act 1985 (merging the 19th century Royal Holloway and Bedford colleges), and is similarly a statutory corporation.[105] The main difference between this and a chartered corporation is that a statutory corporation has no power to do something that is not aligned with its defined aims and objectives.[106]
Durham and London, while both incorporated by royal charter, have statutes made under Acts of Parliament rather than under their charters (in the case of Durham, this arrangement dates back to its creation by Act of Parliament in 1832, while for London it dates from the university's reconstitution by Act of Parliament in 1900). This makes them both chartered and statutory corporations.[105]
At Oxford and Cambridge, incorporated by a public Act of Parliament in 1571, only graduates who have proceeded to the academic rank of
Most new universities are Higher Education Corporations, a form of corporation created by the Education Reform Act 1988 to incorporate the polytechnics independently of their local councils. In a higher education corporation, only the governing board is incorporated, not the graduates. Some newer London colleges share this status. Some new universities are companies limited by guarantee, a common form of incorporation used inter alia for some charities. The London School of Economics is also incorporated in this manner. The University of Chester is an unincorporated trusts within the Church of England, as was Bishop Grosseteste University up to 2019.[107] This was also the original form of Durham University (at that time also a church university) between its foundation in 1832 and its incorporation by royal charter in 1837.
Under the
Mergers
The first merger between British universities was that between King's College, Aberdeen and Marischal College, Aberdeen under the Universities (Scotland) Act 1858 to form the University of Aberdeen, explicitly maintaining the foundation date of King's College.
In 1984 the
Also in 2004, the Victoria University of Manchester and the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology merged to form the University of Manchester.
In 2002, London Guildhall University and the University of North London merged to form London Metropolitan University.[113]
At around the same time a merger was proposed between Imperial College London and University College London, but was abandoned following protests.[114]
In 2011, a merger was proposed between two universities in
In Wales, the
Also in Wales, the
Categorisation
UK universities can be categorised in a number of different ways. Historically, they have frequently been categorised based on age and location, while some more recent categorisations have used statistical techniques such as cluster analysis.
Categorisation by age and location
One of the earliest attempts to categorise British universities was by George Edwin Maclean in a 1917 report for the US Department of the Interior.[115] This split the universities into five groups based on age, structure and location: ancient universities of England (including Durham as being similar in structure), Scottish universities, the University of London, the "new or provincial universities", and the university colleges (Maclean's report only covered England and Scotland; Wales and Ireland were omitted).
In the early 1950s the
Watts (1972) expanded this to eight "conventional" categories: Oxbridge, ancient Scottish, London, larger civic (or
The groupings tend to be somewhat fuzzy in definition, with membership of each group varying between different authors. The common categories are:
- Ancient universities, which are normally subdivided geographically into the ancient universities of Scotland and Oxbridge in England.
- The University of London and its constituent colleges, which were founded in London from the early 19th century onwards as non-residential university colleges, following the pattern of the ancient universities of Scotland.[123] Scott notes that it "compris[es] large schools like Imperial College, University College and the London School of Economics, and small specialised institutes".[119] London does not always feature as a stand-alone category: the UGC joined London with Durham,[116] while Bligh, McNay and Thomas put it in with Durham, York, Lancaster and Wales in their 'other collegiate' group.[121]
- Civic universities, often divided into older or larger and younger or smaller, or some similar division.[117][118][119] The older or larger civic universities, also known as redbrick universities, were founded in provincial cities as non-residential university colleges in the later 19th and early 20th century.[124] The newer or smaller civic universities, sometimes called "white tile" universities, were founded later.[117][118] "Redbrick" is sometimes used to mean any university established between 1800 and 1960,[125] or between 1800 and 1992.[126] Scott, unusually, uses "redbrick" to refer to the younger civics universities.[119]
- Plate glass universities were created in the 1960s as residential universities with degree-awarding powers from the start, in contrast to being created as university colleges.[127] The UGC took the decision to create these universities in the late 1950s and early 1960s, prior to the Robbins Report.[117] The Scottish University of Stirling was the only entirely new university created as a result of the Robbins Report, and is often considered (e.g. by Scott) as a Scottish equivalent of the plate glass universities.[119]
- Technological universities were created from the colleges of advanced technology as a result of the recommendations of the 1963 Robbins Report and are thus also known as Robbins expansion universities.[119][128]
- Old universities refers to institutions that were part of the university sector prior to 1992, including full colleges of the federal universities of London and Wales in 1992.[129][119]
- Imperial College or Cardiff University).[119] More recent classifications divide the post-1992 universities into those (mainly former polytechnics) that became universities after the 1992 act and other colleges that became universities after the Higher Education Act 2004.[122]
- Northern Irish universities form three of Scott's twelve categories, with the other nine consisting solely of English universities, although he does allow for the Scottish category to be subdivided into ancient, civic, technological, "old 'new'" (plate glass), and "new 'new'" (post-1992).[119] The four Scottish universities founded in the 1960s (covering Scott's sub-categories of civic, technological and "old 'new'") are sometimes termed the Scottish chartered universities.[130]
Some universities are hard to categorise.
The University of Dundee is similarly sometimes joined with the ancient universities of Scotland.[138] Watts places it here, while noting that "there might … be dispute about the inclusion of Dundee with the ancient Scottish universities".[118] Whyte considered it to be a redbrick university,[124] while Scott considered it to be the only Scottish civic university.[119]
The
Many categorisations do not include the
Mission groups
These are actual groupings with defined memberships:[139]
- Russell Group – self-selected association of 24 public research universities.
- MillionPlus– coalition of post-1992 universities
- University Alliance – coalition of "business engaged" (mostly) post-1992 universities.
- Cathedrals Group – coalition of (mostly) new universities with historic links to one or more of the Christian churches.[140]
- Independent Universities Group – private universities.[141]
- Independent Higher Education – private universities and higher education providers.[142][143]
Categorisation by structure
- Unitary universities – the standard structure, with all teaching and services provided by the central University. Long standard in Scotland, the first unitary university in England was Birmingham in 1900.
- Examining Board universities – modelled on the separation of teaching in College and examination by the Senate House in the University of Cambridge, the University of London (1836–1900) and the Royal University of Ireland (1880–1909) were set up to function purely as examining boards; there are no current universities in this category.
- Federal universities – Starting with the Queen's University of Ireland (1850–1880) a number of universities have been federal in nature, including the Victoria University (1880–1904), the University of Wales (1893–2007), Durham University (1909–1963) and the Federal University of Surrey (2000–2004); the only current federal universities in the UK are the University of London (from 1900) and the University of the Highlands and Islands (from 2011).
- Collegiate universities – the classical Oxbridge model of a university containing a number of colleges. In addition to Oxford and Cambridge, this has been adopted by Durham, York, and Lancaster, although these differ from the Oxbridge model in that there is no teaching in their colleges. The University of Roehampton and the University of the Arts London are also collegiate, with teaching taking place in academic departments associated with the colleges.[144][145] Federal universities are also sometimes referred to as collegiate.
Statistical categorisation
Research by Vikki Boliver in 2015 used cluster analysis to divide UK universities into four clusters based on how elite they were using data on academic selectivity, research activity, teaching quality, socio-economic exclusivity and economic resources. The first cluster consisted of only Oxford and Cambridge. The second cluster contained the remaining universities from the Russell Group along with the former members of the defunct 1994 Group (except for the University of Essex), all of the pre-1992 universities in Scotland, and the University of Kent. The third cluster was the remaining pre-1992 universities (with the exception of the University of Wales Trinity Saint David (UWTSD), which is technically pre-1992 as it operates under the University of Wales, Lampeter's 1828 Royal Charter), many of the former polytechnics and central institutions, and a few former HE colleges that became university colleges and then universities after the polytechnics. The fourth cluster has the remaining polytechnics and the majority of the former HE colleges, along with UWTSD.[146][147]
Research England carried out a cluster analysis of English universities in 2018 as part of is preparation for the Knowledge Exchange Framework. This used three key dimensions: existing knowledge base, knowledge generation and physical assets. Ninety nine broad-discipline institutions were classified using the cluster analysis, with heuristics (and in one case manual intervention) being used to identify specialist institutions based on concentration of academics; these were manually assigned by field of specialisation to STEM (subdivided into biosciences and veterinary (5 institutions), engineering (1 institution), and agriculture (3 institutions)), social sciences and business (5 institutions), and arts and design (18 institutions). The cluster analysis identified five clusters, randomly assigned labels to avoid implying any ranking of which cluster was "better". The key characteristics of the clusters were:[148]
- Cluster E (29 institutions): "Large universities with broad discipline portfolio across both STEM and non-STEM generating a mid-level amount of world-leading research across all disciplines. Significant amount of research funded by gov't bodies/hospitals; 9.5% from industry. Large proportion of part-time undergraduate students, and small postgraduate population dominated by taught postgraduates."
- Cluster J (17 institutions): "Mid-sized universities with limited funded research activity and generating limited world-leading research. Academic activity across STEM and non-STEM including other health, computer sciences, architecture/planning, social sciences and business, humanities, arts and design. Research activity funded largely by government bodies/hospitals; 13.7% from industry."
- Cluster M (17 institutions): "Small universities with limited funded research activity and generating limited world-leading research. Academic activity across disciplines, particularly in other health domains and non-STEM. Much of research activity funded by gov't bodies/hospitals; 14.7% from industry."
- Cluster V (16 institutions): "Very large, very high research intensive and broad-discipline universities undertaking significant amounts of world-leading research. Research funded by range of sources incl. RCs, gov't bodies, charities and 10.2% from industry. Discipline portfolio: significant activity in clinical medicine and STEM. Student body includes significant numbers of taught and research postgraduates."
- Cluster X (20 institutions): "Large, high research intensive and broad-discipline universities undertaking a significant amount of world-leading research. Much of research funded by RCs and gov't bodies; 8.5% from industry. Discipline portfolio balanced across STEM and non-STEM with less or no clinical medicine activity. Large proportion of taught postgraduates in student population."
Boliver (2015) | Research England (2018) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cluster E | Cluster J | Cluster M | Cluster V | Cluster X | Specialist | Not included | |
Cluster 1 | – | – | – | Cambridge; Oxford | – | – | – |
Cluster 2 | Goldsmiths | – | – | Birmingham; Bristol; Imperial; KCL; Leeds; Liverpool; Manchester; Newcastle; Nottingham; QMUL; Sheffield; Southampton; UCL; Warwick | Bath; Durham; UEA; Exeter; Kent; Lancaster; Leicester; LSE; Loughborough; Reading; RHUL; SOAS; Surrey; Sussex; York | – | Aberdeen; Cardiff; Dundee; Edinburgh; Glasgow; Heriot-Watt; QUB |
Cluster 3 | Aston; Bedfordshire; Bournemouth; Bradford; Brighton; UCLan; City; Coventry; De Montfort; East London; Greenwich; Hertfordshire; Huddersfield; Kingston; Lincoln; Liverpool John Moores; Manchester Met; Middlesex; Northumbria; Nottingham Trent; Oxford Brookes; Plymouth; Portsmouth; Salford; Sheffield Hallam; UWE Bristol; Westminster | Birmingham City; Chester; Canterbury Christ Church; Derby; Gloucestershire; Leeds Beckett; London South Bank; Northampton; Roehampton; Staffordshire; Sunderland; Teesside; Worcester | Bath Spa; Chichester; Falmouth; Newman; West London; Winchester | – | Brunel; Essex; Hull; Keele | Arts Bournemouth; Arts London; Creative Arts; Harper Adams | Abertay Dundee; Aberystwyth; Bangor; Cardiff Met; Edinburgh Napier; Glamorgan;‡ Glasgow Caledonian; Highlands and Islands; Queen Margaret; Robert Gordon; Stirling; Swansea; Ulster; West of Scotland |
Cluster 4 | Anglia Ruskin | Bolton; London Met; Wolverhampton | Bucks New; Cumbria; Edge Hill; Leeds Trinity; Liverpool Hope; St Mark and St John; Solent; Suffolk; York St John | – | – | UC Birmingham; Bishop Grosseteste | Wrexham Glyndwr; Newport;‡ UWTSD |
Not included | Open | – | Buckingham; St Mary Twickenham | – | Birkbeck | ICR; Conservatoire for Dance and Drama; Courtauld; Cranfield; Guildhall; Heythrop;† Leeds Art; Liverpool Performing Arts; Liverpool Tropical Medicine; LBS; LSHTM; NFTS; Norwich Art; Plymouth Art; Ravensbourne; RAC; RAM; RCA; RCM; RCSSD; RNCM; RVC; SGUL; Trinity Laban; Writtle | – |
‡Now part of the University of South Wales †Closed |
Employment in higher education
In December 2018, nearly 440,000 people worked in the higher education sector.[149] According to research by the University and College Union, in 2019/20 around 220,000 academic staff were employed in UK higher education institutions; a third of these were on fixed-term contracts.[150]
Admission
The universities in the United Kingdom (with the exception of
Around half of British universities had one or more courses that require an entrance examination as of 2012 in addition to secondary school qualifications. These include many medicine and dentistry courses as well as popular courses in law and mathematics.[152][156] Some highly competitive courses also require students to attend an interview or audition.[157]
Many universities now operate the Credit Accumulation and Transfer Scheme (CATS) and all universities in Scotland use the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) enabling easier transfer between courses and institutions.
Reputation
British higher education has a strong international reputation, with over half of international students citing this as one of the main factors in deciding to study in the UK (compared to 22 percent of international students studying in Canada, 21 percent in Australia and 15 percent in the US).[158] London has also been ranked as the best city in the world for students.[159] However, a number of universities, including Cambridge, UCL and the LSE, have warned that Brexit poses a reputational risk for UK universities,[160][161] and there are also fears about the impact of the government's immigration and visa policy.[162][163]
Domestic rankings of universities in the UK were first introduced in 1993 by
In the 2020 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, Oxford was placed first, Cambridge third, and Imperial tenth; while the 2020 top fifty also included UCL at fifteenth, LSE at 27th, Edinburgh at 30th, and King's College London at 36th. A further four UK universities (eleven in total) rank in the top 100.[166] Oxford, Cambridge and Imperial have been consistently ranked in the top ten on this table.[176]
In the
The Academic Ranking of World Universities also places Cambridge (third in 2019) and Oxford (seventh) consistently in the world top ten.[202] University College London (15th), Imperial College London (23rd), the University of Edinburgh (31st), and the University of Manchester (33rd) also make the top 50 and two more UK universities (eight total) are in the top 100.[201]
In specific subject rankings, UK universities have performed well with a quarter of all top rankings taken by British Universities in the QS 2017 rankings. The University of Oxford is rated top in most subjects among British universities, with the Royal College of Art first in the world for art and design, the Institute of Education, part of University College London, for education, University of Sussex for Development Studies and Loughborough University for sports-related subjects.[203]
In August 2019, the New Statesman magazine published a cover story, later reprinted by The Week, arguing that British universities have suffered from decades of grade inflation, and from a set of perverse incentives imposed by successive governments: "An elite university education has been sold to successive generations of students. An emaciated, grossly expanded education has been delivered."[204]
Peculiarities
In England and Wales the majority of young full-time university students live away from home,
The University of London from its reform in 1900,[206] and the University of Wales from its inception in 1893 until its reform in 2007, have been federal universities. They have a central governing body with overall responsibility for the maintenance of standards at the constituent colleges. Recently, however, there has been considerable pressure from the larger colleges to become more autonomous and, in some cases, completely independent institutions. Examples of this were the secession of Imperial College London from the University of London and Cardiff University leaving the University of Wales. Cardiff's departure and policies pursued by the Welsh Government have led to the break-up of the University of Wales, which is in the process of merging with the University of Wales Trinity Saint David, with an expected completion date of 2017.[207][208]
The
Two universities, Bishop Grosseteste University in Lincoln and the University of Chester, are unincorporated trusts under the trusteeship of their local Church of England dioceses.
The
Post-nominal abbreviations
In common with practice worldwide, graduates of universities in the United Kingdom often place not only their academic qualifications but also the names of the universities that awarded them after their name, the university typically (but not universally) being placed in parentheses, thus: John Smith, Esq, BSc (Sheffield), or John Smith BSc Sheffield. Degrees are generally listed in ascending order of seniority followed by diplomas. An exception may be made when a degree of a different university falls between two degrees of the same university:[209][210] John Smith, MSci (York), PhD (London); Jane Smoth BA, PhD (London), MA (Bristol).
Some older British universities are regularly denoted by an abbreviation of their Latin name. Notably Oxon, Cantab, Dunelm are used for the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and Durham, which are different from the English abbreviation. For other universities, such as St And for St Andrews, Glas for Glasgow, Aberd for Aberdeen, Edin for Edinburgh or Lond for University of London, the Latin and English abbreviations are identical (both Aberdon[211] and Londin[212] are used occasionally, making the Latin explicit). More recently established universities also sometimes use Latin abbreviations, especially when they share the name of an episcopal see, in which case they sometimes use the same abbreviation that the bishop uses for his signature.
On 30 March 2007 the University of Oxford issued a document entitled "Oxford University Calendar: Notes on Style", which promulgated a new system of abbreviations for use in publications of that university. The general rule is to use the first syllable and the first letter of the second syllable. Thus Oxford and Cambridge became 'Oxf' and 'Camb'. The change was controversial (p. 2, n. 1) but was considered essential to preserve consistency since most of the United Kingdom's universities can be rendered only in English. This document also counsels against the use of parentheses.
Latin abbreviation | English abbreviation | Latin name | English name | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Aberd[213][214] | Aberdonensis | University of Aberdeen | ||
– | Aber Dund[214] | Abertay University, Dundee | ||
– | Ang Rus[214] | Anglia Ruskin University | ||
– | Arden | Arden University | ||
– | Aston | Aston University | ||
– | Arts Lond[214] | University of the Arts London | ||
– | Bedf[214] | University of Bedfordshire | ||
– | Belf[214] or QUB[215] | Queen's University Belfast | ||
Birkbeck[214] | Collegium Birkbeck Londiniense | Birkbeck, University of London | ||
or BBK | ||||
Birm[214] | Birminghamiensis | University of Birmingham | ||
or B'ham[216] | ||||
– | Birm City[214] | Birmingham City University | ||
– | Bourne[214] | University of Bournemouth
|
||
Brad[214] | Bradfordiensis | University of Bradford | ||
– | Brigh[214] | University of Brighton | ||
Bris[214] | Bristoliensis | University of Bristol | ||
– | Brun[214] | Brunel University
|
||
– | Buck[214] | University of Buckingham | ||
Cantab[217] | Camb[214] | Cantabrigiensis | University of Cambridge | |
– | Cant Univ[214] | Canterbury Christ Church University | ||
Cantuar[214] | Lambeth[218] | Cantuariensis | Archbishop of Canterbury's degrees, also known as Lambeth degrees | Cantuar is also used by University of Canterbury, NZ; Oxford style guide recommends (unlike university degrees) the use of the Latin abbreviation for Lambeth degrees. |
– | Card[214] | Cardiff University | ||
– | Cen Lancs[214] or UCLan[219] | University of Central Lancashire | ||
– | Ches[214] | Cestrensis | University of Chester | |
Cicest[220] | Chich[214] | Cicestensis | University of Chichester | Use of Cicest for Chichester is rare |
– | City Lond[214] | City, University of London | ||
– | Cov[214] | Coventry University | ||
– | Cran[214] | Cranfield University | ||
– | UCA[221] | University for the Creative Arts | ||
Cumb[214] | Cumbriensis or Cumbriae | University of Cumbria | ||
– | De Mont[214] | De Montfort University | ||
Dund[214] | Dundensis | University of Dundee | ||
Dunelm[222][223][224] | Durh[214][225] | Dunelmensis | Durham University | Both abbreviations in use from mid 19th century |
– | East Ang[214] or UEA[226] | University of East Anglia | ||
– | East Lond[214] or UEL[227] | University of East London | ||
Edin[214] | Edinburgensis | University of Edinburgh | ||
Exon[228] | Exe[214] | Exoniensis | University of Exeter | |
Fal | Falmouth University | |||
– | Glam[214] | University of Glamorgan | Now part of the University of South Wales | |
Glas[214] | Glasguensis | University of Glasgow | ||
– | Glas Cal[214] | Glasgow Caledonian University | ||
– | Glouc[214] | University of Gloucestershire | ||
– | Greenw[214] | University of Greenwich | ||
– | GSMD[214] | Guildhall School of Music and Drama | ||
– | H-W[214] | Heriot-Watt University | ||
– | Herts[214] | University of Hertfordshire | ||
– | Hudd[214] | University of Huddersfield | ||
– | Imp or Imp Lond[214] | Imperial College London | ||
– | IOE Lond[214] | Institute of Education , London
|
Now part of UCL | |
Cantuar[230] | – (Kent) | Cantuariensis (= Canterbury) or Cantiensis | University of Kent | Use of Cantuar for Kent is rare and risks confusion with both Lambeth degrees and the University of Canterbury , NZ. The Latin name for Kent is Cantium (hence Cantiensis) which would give Cant (also used by the University of Canterbury, NZ); the University of Kent was originally the University of Kent at Canterbury.
|
– | KCL[214] | Collegium Regium apud Londinenses[231] | King's College London | For pre-2008 award, use University of London's post nominal abbreviation.[232] Certain period from 2008 allowed respective graduates to choose from the two awarding bodies.[232] |
Lanc[214] | Lancastriensis | University of Lancaster
|
||
– | ULaw | Collegium iurisprudentiae | University of Law | Previously known as The College of Law |
– | Leeds Met[214] | Leeds Beckett University | Used to be referred to as Leeds Metropolitan | |
Leic[214] | Leicestriensis | University of Leicester | ||
Linc[214] | Lincolniensis | University of Lincoln | ||
Liv,[214] | Liverpolis | University of Liverpool | ||
Lpool[233] or L'pool[234] | ||||
– | Liv Hope[214] | Liverpool Hope University | ||
– | Liv J Moores[214] | Liverpool John Moores University | ||
Lond[214][235] | Londiniensis or Londinensis[236] | University of London | The Bishop of London uses Londin in his signature[237] | |
or Londin | ||||
– | Lond Met[214] | London Metropolitan University | ||
– | LSE[214] | London School of Economics and Political Science
|
For pre-2008 award, use University of London's post nominal abbreviation.[238] | |
– | LSHTM[239] | London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine | ||
– | Lond SB[214] | London South Bank University | ||
– | Lough[214] or Lboro[240] | Loughborough University | ||
Manc[214][241] | Mancuniensis | University of Manchester | ||
– | Manc Met[214] | Manchester Metropolitan University | ||
– | Middx[214] | University of Middlesex
|
||
– | Newc[214] or Ncle[242] | Newcastle University | Both also used by the University of Newcastle. | |
– | North Lond[214] | University of North London | ||
– | N'ton[214] | University of Northampton | ||
– | N'ria[214] | University of Northumbria
|
||
– | Nott[214] | University of Nottingham | ||
– | Nott Trent[214] | Nottingham Trent University | ||
– | Open[243][failed verification] | The Open University
| ||
Oxon[244] | Oxf[214] | Oxoniensis | University of Oxford | |
– | Oxf Brookes[214] | Oxford Brookes University | ||
– | Plym[214] | University of Plymouth | ||
– | Port[214] | University of Portsmouth | ||
– | Qu Marg[214] or QMU[245] | Queen Margaret University | ||
– | QMUL[239] | Queen Mary, University of London
|
For pre-2013 award, use University of London's post nominal abbreviation.[246] From 2013, transition period applies.[246] For medical degrees, Lond is still used.[214] | |
– | R'dg[214] or Rdg[247] | University of Reading | ||
– | Robt Gor[214] | Robert Gordon University | ||
– | Roeh[214] | University of Roehampton | ||
– | RAM[214] | Royal Academy of Music | ||
– | RCA[214] | Royal College of Art | ||
– | RCM[214] | Royal College of Music | ||
– | RHUL[239] | Royal Holloway, University of London | ||
– | RVM[214] | Royal Veterinary College | ||
St And[214] | Sancti Andreae | University of St Andrews | ||
– | Salf[214] | Salford University
|
||
– | SOAS[239] | School of Oriental and African Studies
|
||
– | Sheff[214] | University of Sheffield | ||
– | Sheff Hallam[214] | Sheffield Hallam University | ||
Soton[248] | S'ton[214] | Sotoniensis | University of Southampton | |
– | S'ton Sol[214] | Solent University | ||
– | Staffs[214] | University of Staffordshire
|
||
– | Stir[214] | University of Stirling | ||
– | Strath[214] | University of Strathclyde | ||
– | Sund[214] | University of Sunderland | ||
– | Sur[214] | University of Surrey | ||
– | Sus[214] | University of Sussex | ||
– | Tees[214] | Teesside University | ||
– | Thames V[214] | Thames Valley University
|
Now the University of West London | |
– | UCL[214] | University College London | For pre-2005 awarded degrees, use University of London's post nominal abbreviation.[249] Note further that from 2005, a transition period applies.[250] For medical degrees, Lond is also used.[214] | |
– | Wales[214] | Cambrensis | University of Wales | Camb for Cambrensis would risk confusion with Cambridge. The Oxford Calendar style guide gives "Wales" as the abbreviation for Wales. |
– | Warw[214] | Warwickensis | University of Warwick | |
– | West Eng[214] or UWE[251] | University of the West of England | ||
– | West Sco[214] | University of the West of Scotland | ||
– | Westmin[214] | University of Westminster | ||
Winton | Winc[214] | Wintoniensis | University of Winchester | |
– | Wolv[214] | University of Wolverhampton | ||
– | Worc[214] | Wigorniensis | University of Worcester | |
Ebor[252][253] | – (York) | Eboracensis | University of York | York (not actually an abbreviation) is also used by York University (Canada) |
Value of academic degrees
A study by the Sutton Trust in 2015 found that, after taking student loan repayments into account, a higher apprenticeship (at level 5 in the national qualifications frameworks) delivered higher lifetime earnings on average than a degree from a non-Russell Group university. Despite this, polling for the report found that apprenticeships have a lower perceived value than degrees.[254]
The Institute for Fiscal Studies has found that, after controlling for differences in student characteristics, graduates in medicine and economics earn (on average) 20% more and graduates in business, computing and architecture 10% more than average graduates, while graduates in creative arts earn 15% less. It also found that there is a wide variation in graduate earnings within subjects, even between graduates with the same degree from the same institution. One reason for this variation is the wealth of graduates' family backgrounds, but subject and institution choice as well as prior education attainment level can be a more significant determinant.[255][256][257]
A 2017 study by the Office for National Statistics found that, although university graduates are consistently more likely to be employed than non-graduates, they are increasingly likely to be overqualified for the jobs which they do hold. In peak earning years, a university graduate will earn an average of £36,000 per year, an apprentice will earn £30,000 per year, an A-level graduate will earn £24,000 per year, while someone without an A-level will earn £20,000 per year. Breaking down the university degrees into separate professions, undergraduates in engineering or medicine earn the most at £44,500 per year, while undergraduates in the arts earn the least at £20,700 per year. Finally, Russell Group graduates hold 61% of all jobs that require a university degree, despite being only 17% of all higher education graduates.[258][259]
The Intergenerational Foundation found in a 2018 paper that the "graduate premium" had fallen to around £100,000 averaged across all subjects, degree classes and universities, although with such a wide variation by subject and institution that it was impossible to quantify in a meaningful way. They argue that the graduate premium has been diluted by the large number of graduates, in particular those with non-vocational degrees from non-elite institutions. Making matters worse, employers have responded to the oversupply of graduates by raising the academic requirements of many occupations higher than is really necessary to perform the work.[260] Further study of the graduate premium by the Higher Education Statistics Agency and Warwick University shows that, while graduates born in 1970 earned 19% more than their non-graduate peers, the premium has fallen to 11% for graduates born in 1990.[261]
In a 2018 study, the National Audit Office reported that, although some progress has been made in increasing STEM subject enrollment since 2011, the progress does not match labour market demand. For example, too many students are seeking a degree in the biological sciences, while the shortage in STEM apprentices has seen little improvement. In particular, women have shown scant interest in acquiring high-demand skills such as a computer science degree.[262]
A 2018 study by the Office for National Statistics found that one in eight young people without degree-level qualifications are working in graduate jobs. Most of these jobs are in sales, human resources, and retail and wholesale management. In these fields, on-the-job training can be an effective substitute for formal qualifications.[263]
A 2020 study by the Department for Education found that the median annual earnings of university graduates, five years into their careers, ranged from £20,800 in the creative arts and design to £49,450 in medicine and dentistry.[264]
Academic standards
Concern exists about possible grade inflation. It is claimed that academics are under increasing pressure from administrators to award students good marks and grades with little regard for those students' actual abilities, in order to maintain their league table rankings.[265] The percentage of graduates who receive a First has grown from 7% in 1997 to 26% in 2017, with the rate of growth sharply accelerating toward the end of this period.[266] A 2018 study by the UK Standing Committee for Quality Assessment concluded that improvements in faculty skill and student motivation are only two of many factors driving average grades upward, that grade inflation is real, that the British undergraduate degree classifications will become less useful to students and employers, and that inflation will undermine public confidence in the overall value of higher education.[267] Many students believe that a First or upper Second, by itself, is no longer sufficient to secure a good job, and that their CVs must include additional experiences, such as extracurricular activity, to remain competitive.[268]
The
See also
Notes
- HERA 2017 s 92 renames the umbrella body "UK Research and Innovate" and add "Innovate UK" and "Research England".
References
- ^ a b Aftab Ali (4 August 2016). "More than 30 fake UK universities shut down by Government in past year". The Independent.
- ^ Rebecca Smithers; Donald MacLeod (10 December 2005). "College vote brings break-up of university a step nearer". The Guardian.
Over the past 10 years the university has become an increasingly loose federation of independent institutions that are universities in their own right and receive their grants directly from the Higher Education Funding Council for England, although they still hand out degrees on behalf of the central university.
- Lord Dearing (1997). Higher Education in the learning society – Main Report. HMSO. p. 41. Archived from the originalon 11 February 2015.
Today there are 176 higher education institutions in the UK of which 115 are titled universities (which include the various constituent parts of both the University of London and the University of Wales).
- ^ "It should have been us! Northampton University's very long history". University of Northampton. Archived from the original on 20 April 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
- ISBN 9781108015295.
- ^ "The Foundation of St Thomas's" (PDF). p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 December 2011. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
- ^ "A Chronology of State Medicine, Public Health, Welfare and Related Services in Britain 1066–1999" (PDF). p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
- ^ Joseph Thomas Fowler (1904). Durham University: Earlier Foundations and Present Colleges. F. E. Robinson & Co., London.
- ^ Richard Chartres; David Vermont (1997). A Brief History of Gresham College 1597–1897 (PDF). Gresham College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 July 2011.
- St David's College, Lampeter (1822), University College London (1826), King's College London(1829), or any of the theological colleges or medical schools, as these do not meet Rüegg's definition of a university.)
- ^ "History of the School of Medicine". University of Leeds. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ "Proposed University at York". Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser. 5 February 1825. Retrieved 30 November 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ The Dean of York (1851). "Memoir of the Late Sir Robert Peel". The Living Age. 28: 389.
- ^ "Key facts about Heriot-Watt University". Heriot-Watt University. Archived from the original on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
- ^ "History of Birkbeck". Birkbeck, University of London. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
- ^ "Our Heritage". University of Westminster. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
- ^ "Royal Polytechnic Institution". University of Westminster. Retrieved 17 November 2016.
- ^ "London University". Morning Post. 30 October 1827. Retrieved 30 November 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ "London University". Morning Post. 3 November 1827. Retrieved 30 November 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ UCL Undergraduate Prospectus 2016 Entry. UCL. 2015. p. 7.
- JSTOR 3828546.
- ^ "London University". Chester Courant. 15 February 1831. Retrieved 28 November 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ "University Intelligence". Morning Post. 12 March 1831. Retrieved 28 November 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ Patrick O'Donnell (1912). "Catholic University of Ireland". Catholic Encyclopaedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 7 February 2016 – via New Advent.
- ^ "Legislation". Dr William's Centre for Dissenting Studies, QMUL. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
- ^ "University of Durham". Morning Post. 18 September 1865. Retrieved 5 December 2015 – via British Newspaper Archive.
- ^ P. Phillips Bedson (December 1921). "The Jubilee of Armstrong College". Durham University Journal. 22: 347–354.
- ^ "History of Aberystwyth University". Aberystwyth University. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
- ^ "Heritage". University of Leeds. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
- ^ "History of the University". University of Dundee. Archived from the original on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
- ^ "History of the University". University of Liverpool. 27 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 September 2007. Retrieved 1 December 2015.
- ^ "CLASS IV. (Hansard, 16 August 1889)". Parliamentary Debates (Hansard). 16 August 1889.
- ^ Christina Sinclair Bremner (1897). Education of Girls and Women in Great Britain. Forgotten Books (2013). pp. 129–130.
- ^ "The University's History". University of Reading. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
- ^ "Records of the University of Southampton, 1862–1986". University of Southampton. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
- ^ Brian Harrison, Seeking a Role: The United Kingdom, 1951–1970 (2011) pp 357–70.
- ^ "History of the University". University of Buckingham. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
- ^ Hundreds of academics at top UK universities accused of bullying The Guardian
- ^ a b "Grants, loans and tuition fees: a timeline of how university funding has evolved". 10 November 2010.
- ^ "Welcome to this site". University of Leeds. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
- ^ Vikki Boliver, "How fair is access to more prestigious UK universities?." British journal of sociology 64#2 (2013): 344–364.
- ^ Sharon Gewirtz and Alan Cribb, "Representing 30 years of higher education change: UK universities and the Times Higher." Journal of Educational Administration and History 45.1 (2013): 58–83.
- ^ "Q&A: Tuition fees". BBC News. 14 September 2011.
- ^ "Here's why university tuition fees will probably go up in 2017 – BBC Newsbeat". BBC News. 18 May 2016.
- ^ Coughlan, Sean (22 December 2016). "Tuition fee rise 'sneaked out' on website". BBC.
- ^ See D Farrington and D Palfreyman, The Law of Higher Education (2nd edn 2012) chs 4-5, and ch 12
- ^ "Universities:Written question - HL3416". parliament.uk. 10 December 2016.
- ^ "THE RIGHT TO AWARD UK DEGREES" (PDF). QAA. 1 January 2016. pp. 2–3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ "Degree awarding powers and university title in Scotland: guidance and criteria for applicants". QAA. September 2016. Retrieved 21 July 2018 – via UCL Institute of Education Digital Education Resource Archive.
- ^ "Applications for the grant of Degree Awarding Powers: guidance and criteria for applicants in Wales". Welsh Government. 7 February 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
- Department for Business Innovation and Skills. August 2004. Retrieved 22 July 2018 – via UCL Institute of EducationDigital Education Resource Archive.
- ^ a b "Higher Education and Research Bill: Factsheet on Degree Awarding Powers and University Title" (PDF). Department for Education. January 2017. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
- ^ Alex Bols (15 February 2016). "University: What's in a Title?". GuildHE. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
- ^ "Regulatory advice 4: Transition arrangements for degree awarding powers and university title". OfS. 22 March 2018.
- ^ "Degree awarding powers and university title". Quality Assurance Agency. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
- ^ King's College London Act 1997 s 15 requires 13 elected members, but an "appointed day" under s 3 has not yet been made.
- ^ "Higher Education Code of Governance (2018 Revision)" (PDF). Committee of University Chairs. June 2018. Retrieved 2 August 2018.
- ^ Oxford University Commission, Report of Her Majesty's Commissioners appointed to inquire into State, Discipline, Studies and Revenues of University and Colleges of Oxford (1852) 8. See Oxford University Act 1854 ss 16 and 21, cf Statute IV Archived 7 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine and VI, Council Regulations 13 of 2002, regs 4-10. Discussed in E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the 'Single Channel' (2017) Industrial Law Journal.
- ^ ss 5 and 12
- ^ See Statute A, chs I-IV Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, and ch IV(2) on voting rights.
- Universities (Scotland) Act 1966 Sch 1, part 3
- ^ "London School of Economics, Memorandum and Articles of Association" (PDF). 2006. art 10.5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2017. required a 25 member Council of 14 lay governors, 6 elected academic governors, 3 ex-officio governors, and 2 student governors. However, in 2014, the composition was altered, to be set "by the Court" of the university. This is a large, mostly self-perpetuating body of lay members.
- ^ cf King's College, London, The Charter and Statutes, The Statutes, art 1, "Membership of the Council" requires a 21 member board, 12 lay, 8 staff, 1 student, but appears to make no provision for elections by staff.
- ^ a b See D Farrington and D Palfreyman, The Law of Higher Education (2nd edn 2012) ch 5
- ^ Education Reform Act 1988 ss 124A, 128, Schs 7 and 7A, para 3 (on constitutions by Privy Council)
- ^ Shepherd, Sue (27 July 2017). "There's a gulf between academics and university management – and it's growing". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
- ^ "Office for Students publishes first annual analysis of senior staff pay". Office for Students. 12 February 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
- ^ Barradale, Greg (21 January 2020). "See how your uni Vice Chancellor's pay compares to everyone else's". The Tab. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
- Yale$25bn.
- ^ Further and Higher Education Act 1992 ss 62-69
- HERA 2017 s 1 ff
- ^ Education Act 1962 s 1
- ^ See Committee on Higher Education, Higher education: report of the Committee appointed by the Prime Minister under the Chairmanship of Lord Robbins 1961–63 (23 September 1963) Cmnd 2154
- ^ The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education, Higher Education in the learning society: Main Report (1997) 18.24
- ^ Browne Review, Independent Review of Higher Education Funding and Student Finance (2010)
- ^ Higher Education (Higher Amount) (England) Regulations 2016 reg 6, limiting undergraduate fees
- ^ Higher Education (Amounts) (Wales) Regulations 2015 reg 3
- ^ e.g. Commission v Austria (2005) C-147/03
- ^ Scotland Act 1998 ss 28-29 and Sch 6 leaves higher education fees as a devolved matter.
- ^ cf Brown v Secretary of State for Scotland (1988) Case 197/86
- ^ Higher Education Act 2004 ss 23-24 (SS sets fees up to a 'higher amount') and 31-34 (Director of Fair Access requires fee charging university plans).
- ^ cf R (Bidar) v London Borough of Ealing (2005) C-209/03
- ^ The counter-argument is that abolishing fees would "be regressive, benefiting the richest graduates", although it is unclear how, with appropriate tax policy, this is true: R Adams, 'Poorest students will finish university with £57,000 debt, says IFS' (5 July 2017) Guardian
- ^ "Britain's first profit-making university opened". The Telegraph. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
- ^ "For-profit RDI granted university status". Times Higher Education. 5 August 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
- ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
- Richmond, The American International University in London. Retrieved 16 December 2015.
- ^ "University fee increases pushed through". BBC News - Family & Education. 27 April 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2017.
- ^ e.g. R (Evans) v University of Cambridge [1998] Ed CR 151, [1998] ELR 515, Sedley J allowing a claim for Dr Evans to challenge not being promoted to reader on grounds of a hostile faculty member taking part in a review. R (Persaud) v University of Cambridge [2001] EWCA Civ 534, judicial review allowed for astronomy PhD candidate being failed after it was shown that the process was unfair.
- ^ [2000] EWCA Civ 129
- ^ [2000] EWCA Civ 129, [17] and [30]-[35]
- ^ e.g. Gajree v Open University [2006] EWCA Civ 831 holding there was no reasonable prospect of success for a paper getting 38% and failing. Abramova v Oxford Institute of Legal Practice [2011] EWHC 613 (QB) claimed an LPC had no guidance on taking exams, or giving feedback. The High Court held the claimant was 'ready to blame anyone but herself for her misfortunes'. cf Siddiqui v University of Oxford [2016] EWHC 3150 (QB) allowing a claim to go to trial.
- ^ [2010] EWCA Civ 121
- EA 2010 ss 90-94, 98-99, 116. Historically, see the Universities Tests Act 1871requiring non-conformist (i.e. non-Anglican) entry to university.
- HEA 2004 ss 11-21
- ^ "Registration of Welsh Universities". The Charity Commission. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ "Review of Higher Education Governance – Universities Scotland" (PDF). Universities Scotland. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ "Search results for University". Charity Commission for Northern Ireland. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
- ^ "Regulatory Advice 5: Exempt charities". OfS. 18 May 2018. Retrieved 22 July 2018.
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Further reading
- Anderson, Robert David (January 1996). Universities and Elites in Britain since 1800. New Studies in Economic and Social History. University of Edinburgh. ISBN 9780521557788.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Anderson, Robert David (2004). European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914.
- Anderson, Robert David (1983). Education and Opportunity in Victorian Scotland: schools and universities.
- Axtell, James (2016). Wisdom's Workshop: The Rise of the Modern University'.
Covers all of Europe
- Blanden, Jo; Machin, Stephen (2013). "Educational Inequality and The Expansion of UK Higher Education". Scottish Journal of Political Economy. 60 (5): 578–596. S2CID 27817000.
Covers 1960 – 2001
- Carswell, John (1986). Government and the Universities in Britain: programme and performance 1960–1980.
- Curtis, Mark H (1965). Oxford and Cambridge in transition, 1558–1642: an essay on changing relations between the English universities and English society.
- Dahrendorf, Ralf (1995). LSE: a history of the London School of Economics and Political Science, 1895–1995.
- Davie, George Elder (2000). The democratic intellect: Scotland and her universities in the nineteenth century.
- Gewirtz, Sharon; Cribb, Alan (2013). "Representing 30 years of higher education change: UK universities and the Times Higher". Journal of Educational Administration and History. 45 (1): 58–83. S2CID 143781706.
- Harrison, Brian, ed. (1994). The History of the University of Oxford: Volume VIII: The Twentieth Century. Oxford University Press.
- Irish, Tomás (2015). The University at War, 1914–25: Britain, France, and the United States. Palgrave: Macmillan.
- Moss, Michael S.; Munro, J. Forbes; Trainor, Richard Hughes (2000). University, city and state: the University of Glasgow since 1870 (1st ed.). ISBN 978-0748613236.
- de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde (2003). A history of the University in Europe: Volume 1, universities in the middle ages.
- Simpson, Renate (1984). How the Phd Came to Britain: A Century of Struggle for Postgraduate Education.
- Thomas, John Bernard (1990). British universities and teacher education: A Century of change.
- Vernon, Keith (2004). Universities and the State in England, 1850–1939. Routledge.
- Whyte, William (2015). Redbrick: A Social and Architectural History of Britain's Civic Universities.
External links
- "Studies Concerning Higher Education and Adult Learning from the Office for National Statistics". Office for National Statistics.
- "The Complete University Guide".
- Greaves, Laura (December 2022). "Luminate Prospects: What Do Graduates Do?".