Letter case

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Letter case" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Letter case is the distinction between the letters that are in larger uppercase or capitals (or more formally majuscule) and smaller lowercase (or more formally minuscule) in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that distinguish between the upper- and lowercase have two parallel sets of letters: each in the majuscule set has a counterpart in the minuscule set. Some counterpart letters have the same shape, and differ only in size (e.g. ⟨C, c⟩ or ⟨S, s⟩), but for others the shapes are different (e.g., ⟨A, a⟩ or ⟨G, g⟩). The two case variants are alternative representations of the same letter: they have the same name and pronunciation and are typically treated identically when sorting in alphabetical order.

Letter case is generally applied in a mixed-case fashion, with both upper and lowercase letters appearing in a given piece of text for legibility. The choice of case is often prescribed by the grammar of a language or by the conventions of a particular discipline. In orthography, the uppercase is primarily reserved for special purposes, such as the first letter of a sentence or of a proper noun (called capitalisation, or capitalised words), which makes the lowercase the more common variant in regular text.

In some contexts, it is conventional to use one case only. For example, engineering design drawings are typically labelled entirely in uppercase letters, which are easier to distinguish individually than the lowercase when space restrictions require very small lettering. In mathematics, on the other hand, uppercase and lower case letters denote generally different mathematical objects, which may be related when the two cases of the same letter are used; for example, x may denote an element of a set X.

Terminology

Divided upper and lower type cases with cast metal sorts

Layout for type cases

The terms upper case and lower case may be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen (upper-case and lower-case – particularly if they

Minuscule refers to lower-case letters. The word is often spelled miniscule, by association with the unrelated word miniature and the prefix mini-. That has traditionally been regarded as a spelling mistake (since minuscule is derived from the word minus

The glyphs of lowercase letters can resemble smaller forms of the uppercase glyphs restricted to the baseband (e.g. "C/c" and "S/s", cf. small caps) or can look hardly related (e.g. "D/d" and "G/g"). Here is a comparison of the upper and lower case variants of each letter included in the English alphabet (the exact representation will vary according to the typeface and font used):

(Some lowercase letters have variations e.g. a/ɑ)

Typographically, the basic difference between the majuscules and minuscules is not that the majuscules are big and minuscules small, but that the majuscules generally have the same height (although, depending on the typeface, there may be some exceptions, particularly with Q and sometimes J having a descending element; also, various diacritics can add to the normal height of a letter).

There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have parts higher (ascenders) or lower (descenders) than the typical size. Normally, b, d, f, h, k, l, t ^{[note 1]} are the letters with ascenders, and g, j, p, q, y are the ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by some traditional or classical fonts, 6 and 8 make up the ascender set, and 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9 the descender set.

Bicameral script

This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

A minority of writing systems use two separate cases. Such writing systems are called bicameral scripts. These scripts include the

All other writing systems make no distinction between majuscules and minuscules – a system called unicameral script or unicase. This includes most syllabic and other non-alphabetic scripts.

In scripts with a case distinction, lowercase is generally used for the majority of text; capitals are used for capitalisation and emphasis when bold is not available. Acronyms (and particularly initialisms) are often written in all-caps, depending on various factors.

Capitalisation

Capitalisation is the writing of a word with its first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. Capitalisation rules vary by language and are often quite complex, but in most modern languages that have capitalisation, the first word of every sentence is capitalised, as are all proper nouns. ^{[citation needed]}

Capitalisation in English, in terms of the general orthographic rules independent of context (e.g. title vs. heading vs. text), is universally standardised for

Other words normally start with a lower-case letter. There are, however, situations where further capitalisation may be used to give added emphasis, for example in headings and publication titles (see below). In some traditional forms of poetry, capitalisation has conventionally been used as a marker to indicate the beginning of a line of verse independent of any grammatical feature. In political writing, parody and satire, the unexpected emphasis afforded by otherwise ill-advised capitalisation is often used to great stylistic effect, such as in the case of George Orwell's Big Brother.

Other languages vary in their use of capitals. For example, in German all nouns are capitalised (this was previously common in English as well, mainly in the 17th and 18th centuries), while in Romance and most other European languages the names of the days of the week, the names of the months, and adjectives of nationality, religion, and so on normally begin with a lower-case letter.^[13] On the other hand, in some languages it is customary to capitalise formal polite pronouns, for example De, Dem (Danish), Sie, Ihnen (German), and Vd or Ud (short for usted in Spanish).

Informal communication, such as

• The German letter "
  capital ẞ is accepted as an alternative in the all-caps style.^[14]
• The Greek upper-case letter "Σ" has two different lower-case forms: "ς" in word-final position and "σ" elsewhere. In a similar manner, the Latin upper-case letter "S" used to have two different lower-case forms: "s" in word-final position and " ſ " elsewhere. The latter form, called the long s, fell out of general use before the middle of the 19th century, except for the countries that continued to use blackletter typefaces such as Fraktur. When blackletter type fell out of general use in the mid-20th century, even those countries dropped the long s.^{[citation needed]}
• The treatment of the Greek iota subscript with upper-case letters is complicated.
• Unlike most languages that use Latin-script and link the dotless upper-case "
  some forms of Azeri have both a dotted and dotless I, each in both upper and lower case. Each of the two pairs ("İ/i" and "I/ı") represents a distinctive phoneme
  .
• In some languages, specific digraphs may be regarded as single letters, and in
  Dž/dž" are each regarded as a single letter (like their Cyrillic equivalents "Љ/љ", "Њ/њ" and "Џ/џ", respectively), but only in all-caps style should both components be in upper case (e.g. Ljiljan–LJILJAN, Njonja–NJONJA, Džidža–DŽIDŽA).^{[citation needed]} Unicode designates a single character for each case variant (i.e., upper case, title case and lower case) of the three digraphs.^[16]
• Some English surnames such as fforbes are traditionally spelt with a digraph instead of a capital letter (at least for ff).
• In the
  phonemic symbol that visually resembles a left single quotation mark. Representing the glottal stop, the ʻokina can be characterised as either a letter^[17] or a diacritic.^[18] As a unicase letter, the ʻokina is unaffected by capitalisation; it is the following letter that is capitalised instead. According to the Unicode standard, the ʻokina is formally encoded as U+02BB ʻ MODIFIER LETTER TURNED COMMA,^[19] but it is not uncommon to substitute this with a similar punctuation character, such as the left single quotation mark or an apostrophe.^[20]

• boldface, and choice of serif vs. sans-serif
  .
• In
  boldface, fraktur, script typeface, and blackboard bold
  .
• Some letters of the Arabic and Hebrew alphabets and some jamo of the Korean hangul have different forms depending on placement within a word, but these rules are strict and the different forms cannot be used for emphasis.
  • In the Arabic and Arabic-based alphabets, letters in a word are connected, except for several that cannot connect to the following letter. Letters may have distinct forms depending on whether they are initial (connected only to the following letter), medial (connected to both neighboring letters), final (connected only to the preceding letter), or isolated (connected to neither a preceding nor a following letter).
  • In the Hebrew alphabet, five letters have a distinct form (see Final form) that is used when they are word-final.
• In
  Mkhedruli
  in a fashion that is reminiscent of the usage of upper-case letters in the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic alphabets.
• In the
  rōmaji. In particular, every hiragana character has an equivalent katakana character, and vice versa. Romanised Japanese sometimes uses lowercase letters to represent words that would be written in hiragana, and uppercase letters to represent words that would be written in katakana. Some kana characters are written in smaller type when they modify or combine with the preceding sign (yōon) or the following sign (sokuon
  ).

Stylistic or specialised usage

The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the English-speaking world and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

In English, a variety of case styles are used in various circumstances:

Sentence case

"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"
A mixed-case style in which the first word of the sentence is capitalised, as well as proper nouns and other words as required by a more specific rule. This is generally equivalent to the baseline universal standard of formal English orthography.

In computer programming, the initial capital is easier to automate than the other rules. For example, on English-language Wikipedia, the first character in page titles is capitalised by default. Because the other rules are more complex, substrings for concatenation into sentences are commonly written in "mid-sentence case", applying all the rules of sentence case except the initial capital.

Title case (capital case, headline style)

"The Quick Brown Fox Jumps over the Lazy Dog"
A mixed-case style with all words capitalised, except for certain subsets (particularly

style manuals. (See further explanation below at § Headings and publication titles

.)

Start case (First letter of each word capitalized)

"The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over The Lazy Dog"
Start case, initial caps or proper case is a simplified variant of title case. In text processing, start case usually involves the capitalisation of all words irrespective of their part of speech.

All caps (all uppercase)

"THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPS OVER THE LAZY DOG"
A unicase style with capital letters only. This can be used in headings and special situations, such as for typographical emphasis in text made on a typewriter. With the advent of the

netiquette by some to type in all capitals, and said to be tantamount to shouting.^[21] Long spans of Latin-alphabet text in all upper-case are more difficult to read because of the absence of the ascenders and descenders found in lower-case letters, which aids recognition and legibility. In some cultures it is common to write family names in all caps to distinguish them from the given names, especially in identity documents such as passports. Certain musicians—such as Willow and Finneas, who are both known mononymously—have their names stylised in all caps. Additionally, it is common for bands with vowelless names (a process colourfully known as "disemvoweling") to use all caps, with prominent examples including STRFKR, MSTRKRFT, PWR BTTM, SBTRKT, JPNSGRLS (now known as Hotel Mira), BLK JKS, MNDR, and DWNTWN

.

Small caps

"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"
Similar in form to capital letters but roughly the size of a lower-case "x", small caps can be used instead of lower-case letters and combined with regular caps in a mixed-case fashion. This is a feature of certain fonts, such as Copperplate Gothic. According to various typographical traditions, the height of small caps can be equal to or slightly larger than the x-height of the typeface (the smaller variant is sometimes called petite caps and may also be mixed with the larger variant).^[22] Small caps can be used for acronyms, names, mathematical entities, computer commands in printed text, business or personal printed stationery letterheads, and other situations where a given phrase needs to be distinguished from the main text.

All lowercase

"the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"

A unicase style with no capital letters. This is sometimes used for artistic effect, such as in poetry. Also commonly seen in computer languages, and in informal electronic communications such as

evermore, were all stylised in lowercase. Bands such as Weezer and Silverchair were also stylised in lowercase for multiple albums during their respective careers, with the former consistently using lowercase in their logo since their first studio album. Billie Eilish's debut studio album—When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?—has all of its tracks stylised in lowercase. Some people, such as author bell hooks

, write their names in all lowercase.

In English-language publications, various conventions are used for the capitalisation of words in publication titles and headlines, including chapter and section headings. The rules differ substantially between individual house styles.

The convention followed by many British

For publication titles it is, however, a common typographic practice among both British[23] and U.S. publishers to capitalise significant words (and in the United States, this is often applied to headings, too). This family of typographic conventions is usually called title case. For example, R. M. Ritter's Oxford Manual of Style (2002) suggests capitalising "the first word and all nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, but generally not articles, conjunctions and short prepositions".^[24] This is an old form of emphasis, similar to the more modern practice of using a larger or boldface font for titles. The rules which prescribe which words to capitalise are not based on any grammatically inherent correct–incorrect distinction and are not universally standardised; they differ between style guides, although most style guides tend to follow a few strong conventions, as follows:

• Most styles capitalise all words except for short
  closed-class words (certain parts of speech, namely, articles, prepositions, and conjunctions); but the first word (always) and last word (in many styles) are also capitalised, regardless of their part of speech. Many styles capitalise longer prepositions such as "between" and "throughout", but not shorter ones such as "for" and "with".^[25]
  Typically, a preposition is considered short if it has up to three or four letters.
• A few styles capitalise all words in title case (the so-called start case), which has the advantage of being easy to implement and hard to get "wrong" (that is, "not edited to style"). Because of this rule's simplicity, software case-folding routines can handle 95% or more of the editing, especially if they are programmed for desired exceptions (such as "FBI" rather than "Fbi").
• As for whether hyphenated words are capitalised not only at the beginning but also after the hyphen, there is no universal standard; variation occurs
  headwords
  (e.g., "Short-term Follow-up Care for Burns").

Title case is widely used in many English-language publications, especially in the United States. However, its conventions are sometimes not followed strictly – especially in informal writing.

In creative typography, such as music record covers and other artistic material, all styles are commonly encountered, including all-lowercase letters and special case styles, such as

Multi-word proper nouns include names of organisations, publications, and people. Often the rules for "title case" (described in the previous section) are applied to these names, so that non-initial articles, conjunctions, and short prepositions are lowercase, and all other words are uppercase. For example, the short preposition "of" and the article "the" are lowercase in "Steering Committee of the Finance Department". Usually only capitalised words are used to form an acronym variant of the name, though there is some variation in this.

With

Some surname prefixes also affect the capitalisation of the following internal letter or word, for example "Mac" in Celtic names and "Al" in Arabic names.

Unit symbols and prefixes in the metric system

In the International System of Units (SI), a letter usually has different meanings in upper and lower case when used as a unit symbol. Generally, unit symbols are written in lower case, but if the name of the unit is derived from a proper noun, the first letter of the symbol is capitalised. Nevertheless, the name of the unit, if spelled out, is always considered a common noun and written accordingly in lower case.^[26] For example:

• 1 s (one second) when used for the base unit of time.
• 1 S (one
  electric conductance and admittance (named after Werner von Siemens
  ).
• 1 Sv (one
  ionising radiation dose (named after Rolf Maximilian Sievert
  ).

For the purpose of clarity, the symbol for litre can optionally be written in upper case even though the name is not derived from a proper noun.^[26] For example, "one litre" may be written as:

• 1 l, the original form, for typefaces in which "digit one" ⟨1⟩, "lower-case ell" ⟨l⟩, and "upper-case i" ⟨I⟩ look different.
• 1 L, an alternative form, for typefaces in which these characters are difficult to distinguish, or the typeface the reader will be using is unknown. A "
  Unicode character which represents this, U+2113 ℓ SCRIPT SMALL L, is deprecated by the SI.^[27] Another solution sometimes seen in Web typography
  is to use a serif font for "lower-case ell" in otherwise sans-serif material (1 l).

The letter case of a prefix symbol is determined independently of the unit symbol to which it is attached. Lower case is used for all submultiple prefix symbols and the small multiple prefix symbols up to "k" (for kilo, meaning 10³ = 1000 multiplier), whereas upper case is used for larger multipliers:^[26]

• 1 ms, millisecond, a small measure of time ("m" for milli, meaning 10⁻³ = 1/1000 multiplier).
• 1 Ms, megasecond, a large measure of time ("M" for mega, meaning 10⁶ = 1 000 000 multiplier).
• 1 mS,
  millisiemens
  , a small measure of electric conductance.
• 1 MS, megasiemens, a large measure of electric conductance.
• 1 mm, millimetre, a small measure of length.
• 1 Mm, megametre, a large measure of length.

Use within programming languages

Some case styles are not used in standard English, but are common in computer programming, product branding, or other specialised fields.

The usage derives from how programming languages are

• SGEMM(*), with the asterisk standing in for an equally inscrutable list of 13 parameters (in BLAS),
• MultiplyMatrixByMatrix(Matrix x, Matrix y), in some hypothetical higher level manifestly typed language, broadly following the syntax of C++ or Java,
• multiply-matrix-by-matrix(x, y) in something derived from
  LISP
  , or perhaps
• (multiply (x y)) in the CLOS, or some newer derivative language supporting type inference and multiple dispatch.

In each case, the capitalisation or lack thereof supports a different function. In the first,

Understandably then, such coding conventions are

Camel case

"theQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog" or "TheQuickBrownFoxJumpsOverTheLazyDog"

Spaces and

When the first letter of the first word is lowercase ("iPod", "eBay", "theQuickBrownFox..."), the case is usually known as lower camel case or dromedary case (illustratively: dromedaryCase). This format has become popular in the branding of information technology products and services, with an initial "i" meaning "Internet" or "intelligent"^{[citation needed]}, as in iPod, or an initial "e" meaning "electronic", as in email (electronic mail) or e-commerce (electronic commerce).

Snake case

"the_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog"

Punctuation is removed and spaces are replaced by single underscores. Normally the letters share the same case (e.g. "UPPER_CASE_EMBEDDED_UNDERSCORE" or "lower_case_embedded_underscore") but the case can be mixed, as in OCaml variant constructors (e.g. "Upper_then_lowercase").^[29] The style may also be called pothole case, especially in Python programming, in which this convention is often used for naming variables. Illustratively, it may be rendered snake_case, pothole_case, etc. When all-upper-case, it may be referred to as screaming snake case (or SCREAMING_SNAKE_CASE) or hazard case.^[30]

Kebab case

"the-quick-brown-fox-jumps-over-the-lazy-dog"

Similar to snake case, above, except hyphens rather than underscores are used to replace spaces. It is also known as spinal case, param case, Lisp case in reference to the Lisp programming language, or dash case (or illustratively as kebab-case, looking similar to the skewer that sticks through a kebab). If every word is capitalised, the style is known as train case (TRAIN-CASE).^{[citation needed]}

In CSS, all property names and most keyword values are primarily formatted in kebab case.

Studly caps

"tHeqUicKBrOWnFoXJUmpsoVeRThElAzydOG"

Mixed case with no

Case-insensitive operations can be said to fold case, from the idea of folding the character code table so that upper- and lower-case letters coincide. The conversion of letter case in a string is common practice in computer applications, for instance to make case-insensitive comparisons. Many high-level programming languages provide simple methods for case conversion, at least for the ASCII character set.

Whether or not the case variants are treated as equivalent to each other varies depending on the computer system and context. For example, user

Unicode case folding and script identification

Most modern word processors provide automated case conversion with a simple click or keystroke. For example, in Microsoft Office Word, there is a dialog box for toggling the selected text through UPPERCASE, then lowercase, then Title Case (actually start caps; exception words must be lowercased individually). The keystroke ⇧ Shift+F3 does the same thing.

Methods in programming

In some forms of BASIC there are two methods for case conversion:

UpperA$ = UCASE$("a")
LowerA$ = LCASE$("A")

char upperA = toupper('a');
char lowerA = tolower('A');

Case conversion is different with different

int toupper(int c) { return islower(c) ? c – 'a' + 'A' : c; }
int tolower(int c) { return isupper(c) ? c – 'A' + 'a' : c; }

Some computer programming languages offer facilities for converting text to a form in which all words are capitalised. Visual Basic calls this "proper case"; Python calls it "title case". This differs from usual title casing conventions, such as the English convention in which minor words are not capitalised.

History

Latin majuscule inscription on the Arch of Titus (82 CE)

Papyrus fragment with old Roman cursive script from the reign of Claudius (41–54 CE)

Example of Greek minuscule text Codex Ebnerianus (c. 1100 CE)

Combined case with capital letters above small letters

Late 19th-century mixed cases

Demonstrating the use of a composing stick in front of divided upper and lower type cases at the International Printing Museum in Carson, California, United States, North America

Originally

The timeline of writing in Western Europe can be divided into four eras:^[citation needed]

• Greek majuscule (9th–3rd century BCE) in contrast to the Greek uncial script (3rd century BCE – 12th century CE) and the later Greek minuscule
• Roman half uncial
  , and minuscule
• Carolingian majuscule (4th–8th century CE) in contrast to the Carolingian minuscule
  (around 780 – 12th century)
• Gothic majuscule (13th and 14th century), in contrast to the early Gothic (end of 11th to 13th century), Gothic (14th century), and late Gothic (16th century) minuscules.

Traditionally, certain letters were rendered differently according to a set of rules. In particular, those letters that began sentences or nouns were made larger and often written in a distinct script. There was no fixed capitalisation system until the early 18th century. The English language eventually dropped the rule for nouns, while the German language keeps it.

Similar developments have taken place in other alphabets. The lower-case script for the Greek alphabet has its origins in the 7th century and acquired its quadrilinear form (that is, characterised by ascenders and descenders^[35]) in the 8th century. Over time, uncial letter forms were increasingly mixed into the script. The earliest dated Greek lower-case text is the Uspenski Gospels (MS 461) in the year 835.^[36] The modern practice of capitalising the first letter of every sentence seems to be imported (and is rarely used when printing Ancient Greek materials even today).^{[citation needed]}

The individual type blocks used in hand typesetting are stored in shallow wooden or metal drawers known as "type cases". Each is subdivided into a number of compartments ("boxes") for the storage of different individual letters.^{[citation needed]}

The Oxford Universal Dictionary on Historical Advanced Proportional Principles (reprinted 1952) indicates that case in this sense (referring to the box or frame used by a compositor in the printing trade) was first used in English in 1588. Originally one large case was used for each typeface, then "divided cases", pairs of cases for majuscules and minuscules, were introduced in the region of today's Belgium by 1563, England by 1588, and France before 1723.

The terms upper and lower case originate from this division. By convention, when the two cases were taken out of the storage rack and placed on a rack on the

Though pairs of cases were used in English-speaking countries and many European countries in the seventeenth century, in Germany and Scandinavia the single case continued in use.[37]

Various patterns of cases are available, often with the compartments for lower-case letters varying in size according to the frequency of use of letters, so that the commonest letters are grouped together in larger boxes at the centre of the case.^[37] The compositor takes the letter blocks from the compartments and places them in a composing stick, working from left to right and placing the letters upside down with the nick to the top, then sets the assembled type in a galley.^[37]

See also

Notes

References

1. ^ "The School's Manual of Style". Johns Hopkins, Bloomberg School of Public Health. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
2. ^ Hansard, Thomas Curson (1825). Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing. pp. 408, 4806. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
3. ISBN 9780486261423
   .
4. ^ Sacramento History Museum. Ever wonder where upper case and lower case comes from?.
5. ^ Charlton T. Lewis (1890). "Minusculus". An Elementary Latin Dictionary. New York, Cincinnati, and Chicago: American Book Company.
6. ISBN 978-0-395-82517-4
   .
7. ISBN 0-486-20427-8
   .
8. ^ Březina, David (2012), Challenges in multilingual type design, p. 14 – via University of Reading Department of Typography and Design
9. ^ ^{a b} Dennis Oliver. "Using Capital Letters (#1)". Dave's ESL Cafe. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
10. ^ Nancy Edmonds Hanson (25 August 2008). "AP Style: Courtesy and Professional Titles". Minnesota State University. Archived from the original on 1 December 2016. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
11. ^ "Capitalizing Titles of People". English Plus. 1997–2006. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
12. ^ "Capitalization". The Chicago Manual of Style Online. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
13. ^ "Citing Sources: Capitalization and Personal Names in Foreign Languages". Waidner-Spahr Library. Dickinson. Retrieved 30 March 2017.
14. ^ Cf. Güthert, Kerstin (2017), PRESSEMITTEILUNG 29.6.2017 Amtliches Regelwerk der deutschen Rechtschreibung aktualisiert (PDF), Council for German Orthography, p. 1, retrieved 2017-06-29.
15. ^ "Ijsland / IJsland". Taalunie. Retrieved 9 March 2014.
16. ^ "Latin Extended-B" (PDF). Unicode. U+01C4, U+01C5, U+01C6, U+01C7, U+01C8, U+01C9, U+01CA, U+01CB, U+01CC. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
17. ^ "Why I Spell it Hawai'i and not Hawaii, and Why You Should, Too". Blond Voyage. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
18. ^ "Hawaiian Language Online". The University of Hawai‘i. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
19. ^ "Spacing Modifier Letters" (PDF). Unicode. U+02BB. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
20. ^ "'Ōlelo Hawai'i on the WWW: A.K.A., How To Give Good 'Okina". KeolaDonaghy.com. Archived from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 6 August 2017.
21. ^ RFC 1855 "Netiquette Guidelines"
22. ^ "Registered features – definitions and implementations". OpenType Layout tag registry. Microsoft. Tag:'pcap', Tag: 'smcp'. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
23. TheGuardian.com
    . Retrieved 10 June 2014.
24. ^ R. M. Ritter, ed. (2002). Oxford Manual of Style. Oxford University Press.
25. ^ Currin Berdine. "What to Capitalize in a Title". AdminSecret. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
26. ^ ^{a b c} Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (2006). "The International System of Units" (PDF). Organisation Intergouvernementale de la Convention du Mètre. pp. 121, 130–131. Retrieved 12 January 2014.
27. ^ "Letterlike symbols". Charts (Beta). Unicode Consortium. Retrieved 28 July 2017.
28. ^ "History around Pascal Casing and Camel Casing". 3 February 2004.
29. ^ "Caml programming guidelines". caml.inria.fr. Retrieved 2017-03-31.
30. ^ "Ruby Style Guide". GitHub. Retrieved 11 November 2013.
31. ^ "Character Properties, Case Mappings & Names FAQ". Unicode. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
32. ^ "Unicode Technical Note #26: On the Encoding of Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and Han". Retrieved 23 April 2007.
33. ISBN 0-7641-5615-2
    .
34. ^ Knut Kleve (1994). "The Latin Papyri in Herculaneum". Proceedings of the 20th International Congress of Papyrologists, Copenhagen, 23–29 August 1992. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.
35. ^ "Roman Writing Systems – Medieval Manuscripts". Retrieved 2019-07-03.
36. ^ The earliest known biblical manuscript is a palimpsest of Isajah in Syriac, written in 459/460. Bruce M. Metzger & Bart D. Ehrman, The Text of the New Testament (Oxford University Press: 2005), p. 92.
37. ^ ^{a b c d} David Bolton (1997). "Type Cases". The Alembic Press. Archived from the original on 16 July 2007. Retrieved 23 April 2007.

Further reading

Look up capital letter, lowercase, minuscule, or Appendix:Capital letter in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Capital letters.

• Hamilton, Frederick W. (1918). Capitals: A Primer of Information About Capitalization with Some Practical Typographic Hints as to the Use of Capitals – via Project Gutenberg.