Urban agriculture
Agriculture |
---|
Agriculture portal |
Urban agriculture refers to various practices of
Urban agriculture can appear at varying levels of economic and social development. It can involve a movement of organic growers, "
History
Some of the first evidence of urban agriculture comes from Mesopotamia. Farmers would set aside small plots of land for farming within the city's walls. (3500BC) In
In the context of the USA, urban agriculture as a widely recognized practice took root in response of the 1893-1897 economic depression in Detroit.[8] In 1894, Mayor Hazen S. Pingree called on outlying citizens of a depression-struck Detroit to lend their properties to the city government ahead of the winter season.[9][10] The Detroit government would in turn develop these lots as makeshift potato gardens - nicknamed Pingree's Potato Patches after the mayor - as potatoes were weather resistant and easy to grow. He intended for these gardens to produce income, food supply, and boost independence during times of hardship.[11] The Detroit project was successful enough that other US cities adopted similar urban agriculture practices. By 1906, the United States Department of Agriculture estimated that over 75,000 schools alone managed urban agriculture programs [12] to provide children and their families with fresh produce. However, it would not be until the First World War that US urban agriculture spread widely.[8]
During World War One, food production became a major national security concern for several countries, including the US.[8] President Woodrow Wilson called upon all American citizens to utilize any available open food growth, seeing this as a way to pull them out of a potentially damaging situation of food insecurity.[13] The National War Garden Committee under the American Forestry Association organized campaigns with patriotic messages such as "Sow the Seeds of Victory", with the aim of reducing domestic pressure on food production. In so doing, primary agricultural industries could focus on shipping rations to troops in Europe.[9] So called victory gardens sprouted during World War One (emulated later during World War Two) in the US, as well as Canada & the United Kingdom. By 1919, American victory gardens numbered 5 million plots country-wide, and over 500 million pounds of produce was harvested. So efficient were the American urban agriculture programs that surplus foodstuffs were shipped to war-ravaged European nations, in addition to American military forces.
A very similar practice came into use during the Great Depression that provided a purpose, job and food to those who would otherwise be without anything during such harsh times. These efforts helped raise spirits and boost economic growth. Over 2.8 million dollars worth of food was produced from the subsistence gardens during the Depression. Public and government support for Victory Gardens waned during the Interwar Period, with most American sites becoming repurposed for various economic development initiatives.[10]
By World War II, the War/Food Administration set up a National Victory Garden Program that set out to systematically establish functioning agriculture within cities. Indeed, these new victory gardens became the "first line of defense for the country".[14] Once more, the government supported and encouraged Victory Gardens as a means of national security: domestic pressure on major agricultural industries would be relieved to further augment the war economy. With this new plan in action, as many as 5.5 million Americans took part in the victory garden movement and over nine million pounds of fruit and vegetables were grown a year, accounting for 44% of US-grown produce throughout that time.[15] In the post-war period, the US government gradually stopped assisting urban agriculture programs, partially due to the lack of need of war supplies and partially due to the US fully embracing industrialized food systems.[14]
By the 1950s and 1960s, urban agriculture was more focused on grassroots initiatives spearheaded by politicized social movements, including the
American urban agriculture initiatives during the 1980s built upon the previous decade's focus on community engagement. A natural evolution was sites of urban agriculture entering everyday community roles and consequently requiring more funding than grassroots movements could muster. The US government created an Urban Garden Program, which funded programs in twenty-eight cities who in turn produced roughly twenty-one million dollars of produce. Though some sites of urban agriculture were repurposed for other economic development, the overall trend of the 1980s was an expansion of the practice.[8] The 1990s continued this growth of urban agriculture sites in the US, while also expanding their purposes. A result of this broadening was the division of urban agriculture practitioners based on motivations, organizational structure, and a host of other operational concerns.[10]
Throughout the 2000s, 2010s, and 2020s, urban agriculture sites and usages of these sites have continued to grow. Groups managing some sites focus on the economic security and cultural preservation of immigrants, such as the Hmong American communities in various US states.[17][18][19][20] Other groups incorporate urban agriculture programs as part of wider social justice missions, such as those in the city of Wilmington, Delaware.[8] Still others seek to use urban agriculture as a means of combating community-scale food insecurity,[21] as part of wider goals of rewilding cities[22] and human diets,[23] among a multitude of other uses.[24] Much attention has been placed on the practice of urban agriculture in connection to food movements such as alternative food networks, sustainable food networks, and local food movements. Alternative food networks seek to redefine food production, distribution, and consumption by considering the sociocultural elements of local communities and economies.[25] Sustainable food networks are a related concept, but focus more on ecological concerns. Local food networks focus more on the political responses to globalization [26] or concerns with the environmental impacts of industrialized food transportation.[27]
Main types
There is no overarching term for agricultural plots in urban areas. Gardens and farms, while not easy to define, are the two main types.[28] According to the USDA, a farm is "any place from which $1,000 or more of agricultural products were produced and sold."[29] In Europe, the term "city farm" is used to include gardens and farms.[30] Any plot with produce being grown in it can be considered an urban farm. Size does not matter, it is more about growing produce on your own in your personal plot or garden.
Gardens
Many communities make community gardening accessible to the public, providing space for citizens to cultivate plants for food, recreation and education. In many cities, small plots of land and also rooftops are used for community members to garden. Community gardens give citizens the opportunity to learn about horticulture through trial and error and get a better understanding of the process of producing food and other plants. All while still being able to feed those people in need from the community. It holds as both a learning experience as well as a means of help for those people in need. A community gardening program that is well-established is Seattle's P-Patch.[31] The grassroots permaculture movement has been hugely influential in the renaissance of urban agriculture throughout the world. During the 1960s a number of community gardens were established in the United Kingdom, influenced by the community garden movement in the United States.[32] Bristol's Severn Project was established in 2010 for £2500 and provides 34 tons of produce per year, employing people from disadvantaged backgrounds.[33]
Farms
The first urban agriculture method of growing occurs when family farms maintain their land as the city grows around it. City farms/Urban farms are agricultural plots in
An early city farm was set up in 1972 in
In 2010, New York City saw the building and opening of the world's largest privately owned and operated
In Singapore,
Aquaponics systems
The origins of
In practice, fish are raised in a tank, and their waste releases ammonia. Beneficial bacteria then convert the ammonia into nitrites and nitrates, which serve as essential nutrients for the plants. As the plants take up these nutrients, they cleanse the water, which is recirculated back to the fish tank, completing the sustainable loop.
Vertical farming
Vertical farming has emerged as a solution for sustainable urban agriculture, enabling crops to be cultivated in vertically stacked layers or inclined surfaces, within controlled indoor environments. This approach maximizes space utilization and facilitates year-round cultivation, making it an ideal choice for densely populated urban areas with limited land availability.
The concept of vertical farming dates back to the early 20th century, but its recent popularity has surged due to the challenges posed by
In practice, vertical farms employ advanced techniques such as
Indoor farms
The concept of indoor farming emerged as a solution to the challenges faced by conventional
In practice, indoor farms utilize advanced techniques like
Perspectives
Resource and economic
The Urban Agriculture Network has defined urban agriculture as:[49]
An industry that produces, processes, and markets food, fuel, and other outputs, largely in response to the daily demand of consumers within a town, city, or metropolis, many types of privately and publicly held land and water bodies were found throughout intra-urban and peri-urban areas. Typically urban agriculture applies
intensive productionmethods, frequently using and reusing natural resources and urban wastes, to yield a diverse array of land-, water-, and air-based fauna and flora contributing to food security, health, livelihood, and environment of the individual, household, and community.
With rising urbanization, food resources in urban areas are less accessible than in rural areas.
Today, some cities have much vacant land due to
Environmental
The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) defines urban agriculture to include aspects of environmental health, remediation, and recreation:[52]
Urban agriculture is a complex system encompassing a spectrum of interests, from a traditional core of activities associated with the production, processing, marketing, distribution, and consumption, to a multiplicity of other benefits and services that are less widely acknowledged and documented. These include recreation and leisure; economic vitality and business entrepreneurship, individual health and well-being; community health and well being; landscape beautification; and environmental restoration and remediation.
Modern planning and design initiatives are often more responsive to this model of urban agriculture because it fits within the current scope of sustainable design. The definition allows for a multitude of interpretations across cultures and time. Frequently it is tied to policy decisions to build sustainable cities.[53]
Urban farms also provide unique opportunities for individuals, especially those living in cities, to get actively involved with ecological citizenship. By reconnecting with food production and nature, urban community gardening teaches individuals the skills necessary to participate in a democratic society. Decisions must be made on a group-level basis in order to run the farm. Most effective results are achieved when residents of a community are asked to take on more active roles in the farm.[54]
Urban farming is not as regulated as commercial farming. So chemicals can be applied and not regulated like a commercial grower would. There is nothing in place that will tell anyone what was applied. It is not regulated as strict so a lot can happen without being known, as far as what is applied.
Food security
Access to nutritious food, both economically and geographically, is another perspective in the effort to locate food and livestock production in cities. The tremendous influx of the world population to urban areas has increased the need for fresh and safe food. The Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC) defines food security as:
All persons in a community having access to culturally acceptable, nutritionally adequate food through local, non-emergency sources at all times.
Areas faced with food security issues have limited choices, often relying on highly
Some systematic reviews have already explored urban agriculture contribution to food security and other determinants of health outcomes (see [56])
Urban agriculture is part of a larger discussion of the need for alternative agricultural paradigms to address food insecurity, inaccessibility of fresh foods, and unjust practices on multiple levels of the food system; and this discussion has been led by different actors, including food-insecure individuals, farm workers, educators and academics, policymakers, social movements, organizations, and marginalized people globally.[57]
The issue of food security is accompanied by the related movements of food justice and food sovereignty. These movements incorporate urban agriculture in how they address food-resources of a community.[58] Food sovereignty, in addition to promoting food access, also seeks to address the power dynamics and political economy of food; it accounts for the embedded power structures of the food system, ownership of production, and decision-making on multiple levels (i.e. growing, processing, and distribution): Under this framework, representative decision-making and responsiveness to the community are core features.[59][60][61]
Agroecological
Under an agroecological framework, urban agriculture has the potential to play a role as a "public space, as an economic development strategy, and as a community-organizing tool" while alleviating food insecurity.[64]
Impact
In general, Urban and peri urban agriculture (UPA) contributes to food availability, particularly of fresh produce, provides employment and income and can contribute to the food security and nutrition of urban dwellers.[2]
Economic
Urban and
Social
Urban agriculture can have a large impact on the social and emotional well-being of individuals.
When individuals come together around UA, physical activity levels are often increased. This can also raise serotonin levels akin to working out at a gym.[72] There is the added element of walking/biking to the gardens, further increasing physical activity and the benefits of being outdoors.[73]
UPA can be seen as a means of improving the livelihood of people living in and around cities. Taking part in such practices is seen mostly as an informal activity, but in many cities where inadequate, unreliable, and irregular access to food is a recurring problem, urban agriculture has been a positive response to tackling food concerns. Due to the food security that comes with UA, feelings of independence and empowerment often arise. The ability to produce and grow food for oneself has also been reported to improve levels of self-esteem or of self-efficacy.[68] Households and small communities take advantage of vacant land and contribute not only to their household food needs but also the needs of their resident city.[74] The CFSC states that:
Community and residential gardening, as well as small-scale farming, save household food dollars. They promote nutrition and free cash for non-garden foods and other items. As an example, you can raise your own chickens on an urban farm and have fresh eggs for only $0.44 per dozen.[75]
This allows families to generate larger incomes selling to local
Some community urban farms can be quite efficient and help women find work, who in some cases are marginalized from finding employment in the formal economy.[76] Studies have shown that participation from women have a higher production rate, therefore producing the adequate amount for household consumption while supplying more for market sale.[77]
As most UA activities are conducted on vacant municipal land, there have been raising concerns about the allocation of land and property rights. The IDRC and the FAO have published the Guidelines for Municipal Policymaking on Urban Agriculture, and are working with municipal governments to create successful policy measures that can be incorporated in urban planning.[78]
Over a third of US households, roughly 42 million, participate in food gardening. There has also been an increase of 63% participation in farming by millennials from 2008 to 2013. US households participating in community gardening has also tripled from 1 to 3 million in that time frame. Urban agriculture provides unique opportunities to bridge diverse communities together. In addition, it provides opportunities for health care providers to interact with their patients. Thus, making each community garden a hub that is reflective of the community.[79]
Energy efficiency
The current
Similarly, in a study by Marc Xuereb and Region of Waterloo Public Health, it was estimated that switching to locally-grown food could save transport-related emissions equivalent to nearly 50,000 metric tons of CO2, or the equivalent of taking 16,191 cars off the road.[83]
In theory one would save money, but everything is being run on the house's power grid most of the time. So prices can vary according to when you water, or how you water, etc.
Carbon footprint
As mentioned above, the energy-efficient nature of urban agriculture can reduce each city's
Reduction in ozone and particulate matter
The reduction in
Soil decontamination
This section's factual accuracy is disputed. (June 2023) |
Vacant urban lots are often victims to illegal dumping of hazardous chemicals and other wastes. They are also liable to accumulate standing water and "
Urban agriculture as a method to mediate chemical pollution can be effective in preventing the spread of these chemicals into the surrounding environment. Other methods of remediation often disturb the soil and force the chemicals contained within it into the air or water. Plants can be used as a method to remove chemicals and also to hold the soil and prevent erosion of contaminated soil decreasing the spread of pollutants and the hazard presented by these lots.[93][94]
One way of identifying soil contamination is through using already well-established plants as bioindicators of soil health. Using well-studied plants is important because there has already been substantial bodies of work to test them in various conditions, so responses can be verified with certainty. Such plants are also valuable because they are genetically identical as crops as opposed to natural variants of the same species. Typically urban soil has had the topsoil stripped away and has led to soil with low aeration, porosity, and drainage. Typical measures of soil health are microbial biomass and activity, enzymes, soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen, available nutrients, porosity, aggregate stability, and compaction. A new measurement is active carbon (AC), which is the most usable portion of the total organic carbon (TOC) in the soil. This contributes greatly to the functionality of the soil food web. Using common crops, which are generally well-studied, as bioindicators can be used to effectively test the quality of an urban farming plot before beginning planting.[95]
Noise pollution
Large amounts of noise pollution not only lead to lower property values and high frustration, they can be damaging to human hearing and health.[96] The study "Noise exposure and public health" found that exposure to continual noise is a public health problem. Examples of the detriment of continual noise on humans to include: "hearing impairment, hypertension and ischemic heart disease, annoyance, sleep disturbance, and decreased school performance." Since most roofs or vacant lots consist of hard flat surfaces that reflect sound waves instead of absorbing them, adding plants that can absorb these waves has the potential to lead to a vast reduction in noise pollution.[96]
Nutrition and quality of food
Daily intake of a variety of fruits and vegetables is linked to a decreased risk of chronic diseases including diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Urban agriculture is associated with increased consumption of fruits and vegetables[97] which decreases risk for disease and can be a cost-effective way to provide citizens with quality, fresh produce in urban settings.[98]
Produce from urban gardens can be perceived to be more flavorful and desirable than store bought produce Harvesting produce from one's own community garden cuts back on storage times significantly.
Urban agriculture also provides quality nutrition for low-income households. Studies show that every $1 invested in a community garden yields $6 worth of vegetables if labor is not considered a factor in investment.[98] Many urban gardens reduce the strain on food banks and other emergency food providers by donating shares of their harvest and providing fresh produce in areas that otherwise might be food deserts. The supplemental nutrition program Women, Infants and Children (WIC) as well as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) have partnered with several urban gardens nationwide to improve the accessibility to produce in exchange for a few hours of volunteer gardening work.[102]
Urban farming has been shown to increase health outcomes. Gardeners consume twice as much fruit and vegetables than non-gardeners. Levels of physical activity are also positively associated with urban farming. These results are seen indirectly and can be supported by the social involvement in an individual's community as a member of the community farm. This social involvement helped raise the aesthetic appeal of the neighborhood, boosting the motivation or efficacy of the community as a whole. This increased efficacy was shown to increase neighborhood attachment. Therefore, the positive health outcomes of urban farming can be explained in part by interpersonal and social factors that boost health. Focusing on improving the aesthetics and community relationships and not only on the plant yield, is the best way to maximize the positive effect of urban farms on a neighborhood.[103]
Economy of scale
Using high-density urban farming with
Health inequalities and food justice
A 2009 report by the USDA determined that "evidence is both abundant and robust enough for us to conclude that Americans living in low-income and minority areas tend to have poor access to healthy food", and that the "structural inequalities" in these neighborhoods "contribute to inequalities in diet and diet-related outcomes".
Not only can urban agriculture provide healthy, fresh food options, but also can contribute to a sense of community, aesthetic improvement, crime reduction, minority empowerment and autonomy, and even preserve culture through the use of farming methods and heirloom seeds preserved from areas of origin.[111]
Environmental justice
Urban agriculture may advance environmental justice and food justice for communities living in food deserts. First, urban agriculture may reduce racial and class disparities in access to healthy food. When urban agriculture leads to locally grown fresh produce sold at affordable prices in food deserts, access to healthy food is not just available for those who live in wealthy areas, thereby leading to greater equity in rich and poor neighborhoods.[112]
Improved access to food through urban agriculture can also help alleviate psychosocial stresses in poor communities. Community members engaged in urban agriculture improve local knowledge about healthy ways to fulfill dietary needs. Urban agriculture can also better the mental health of community members. Buying and selling quality products to local producers and consumers allows community members to support one another, which may reduce stress. Thus, urban agriculture can help improve conditions in poor communities, where residents experience higher levels of stress due to a perceived lack of control over the quality of their lives.[113]
Urban agriculture may improve the livability and built environment in communities that lack supermarkets and other infrastructure due to the presence of high unemployment caused by
However, urban agriculture can also present urban growers with health risks if the soil used for urban farming is
Implementation
Creating a community-based infrastructure for urban agriculture means establishing local systems to grow and process food and transfer it from farmer to consumer.
To facilitate food production, cities have established community-based farming projects. Some projects have collectively tended community farms on
Food processing on a community level has been accommodated by centralizing resources in community tool sheds and processing facilities for farmers to share. The Garden Resource Program Collaborative based in Detroit has cluster tool banks. Different areas of the city have tool banks where resources like tools, compost, mulch, tomato stakes, seeds, and education can be shared and distributed with the gardeners in that cluster. Detroit's Garden Resource Program Collaborative also strengthens their gardening community by providing access to their member's transplants; education on gardening, policy, and food issues; and by building connectivity between gardeners through workgroups, potlucks, tours, field trips, and cluster workdays. In Brazil, "Cities Without Hunger" has generated a public policy for the reconstruction of abandoned areas with food production and has improved the green areas of the community.
Benefits
The benefits that UPA brings along to cities that implement this practice are numerous. The transformation of cities from only consumers of food to generators of agricultural products contributes to sustainability, improved health, and poverty alleviation.
- UPA assists to close the open-loop system in urban areas characterized by the importation of food from rural zones and the exportation of waste to regions outside the city or town.
- Wastewater and organic solid waste can be transformed into resources for growing agriculture products: the former can be used for irrigation, the latter as fertilizer.
- Vacant urban areas can be used for agriculture production.
- Other natural resources can be conserved. The use of wastewater for irrigation improves water managementand increases the availability of fresh water for drinking and household consumption.
- UPA can help to preserve bioregional ecologies from being transformed into cropland.
- Urban agriculture saves energy (e.g. energy consumed in transporting food from rural to urban areas).
- Local production of food also allows savings in transportation costs, storage, and in product loss, what results in food cost reduction.
- UPA improves the quality of the urban environment through greening and thus, a reduction in pollution.
- Urban agriculture also makes the city a healthier place to live by improving the quality of the environment.
- UPA is a very effective tool to fight against hunger and malnutrition since it facilitates the access to food by an impoverished sector of the urban population.
Poverty alleviation: It is known that a large part of the people involved in urban agriculture is the urban poor. In developing countries, the majority of urban agricultural production is for self-consumption, with surpluses being sold in the market. According to the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), urban poor consumers spend 60–80% of their income on food, making them very vulnerable to higher food prices.
- UPA provides food and creates savings in household expenditure on consumables, thus increasing the amount of income allocated to other uses.
- UPA surpluses can be sold in local markets, generating more income for the urban poor.[65]
Urban farms also are a proven effective educational tool to teach kids about healthy eating and meaningful physical activity.[121]
Trade-offs
- Space is at a premium in cities and is accordingly expensive and difficult to secure.
- The utilization of untreated wastewater for urban agricultural irrigation can facilitate the spread of waterborne diseases among the human population.[122]
- Although studies have demonstrated improved air quality in urban areas related to the proliferation of urban gardens, it has also been shown that increasing urban pollution (related specifically to a sharp rise in the number of automobiles on the road), has led to an increase in insect pests, which consume plants produced by urban agriculture. It is believed that changes to the physical structure of the plants themselves, which have been correlated to increased levels of air pollution, increase plants' palatability to insect pests. Reduced yields within urban gardens decreases the amount of food available for human consumption.[123]
- Studies indicate that the nutritional quality of wheat suffers when urban wheat plants are exposed to high nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide concentrations. This problem is particularly acute in the developing world, where outdoor concentrations of sulfur dioxide are high and large percentages of the population rely upon urban agriculture as a primary source of food. These studies have implications for the nutritional quality of other staple crops that are grown in urban settings.[123]
- Agricultural activities on land that is contaminated (with such metals as lead) pose potential risks to human health. These risks are associated both with working directly on contaminated land and with consuming food that was grown in contaminated soil.[124]
Municipal greening policy goals can pose conflicts. For example, policies promoting urban tree canopy are not sympathetic to vegetable gardening because of the deep shade cast by trees. However, some municipalities like Portland, Oregon, and Davenport, Iowa are encouraging the implementation of fruit-bearing trees (as street trees or as park orchards) to meet both greening and food production goals.[125]
See also
- Allotment (gardening)
- Asset-based community development
- Building-integrated agriculture
- Ecological sanitation
- Foodscaping
- Forest gardening
- Green wall
- Growbag
- Growroom
- Guerrilla gardening
- Market garden
- Metropolitan agriculture
- Permaculture
- Rooftop gardens
- Satoyama
- Sheet mulching
- Smallholding
- Subsistence agriculture
- Terraces (agriculture)
- Underground farming
- Urban horticulture
- Urban forestry
- Vertical farming
- Windowfarm
References
- ^ Bailkey, M., and J. Nasr. 2000. "From Brownfields to Greenfields: Producing Food in North American Cities", Community Food Security News. Fall 1999/Winter 2000:6
- ^ a b "Food for the Cities: Production systems (UPA)". FAO. Retrieved 27 February 2022.
- ^ Hampwaye, G.; Nel, E. & Ingombe, L. (September 2009). "The role of urban agriculture in addressing household poverty and food security: the case of Zambia". FANRPAN. Global Development Network. Archived from the original on 14 April 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ISBN 9780415712606. Archivedfrom the original on 1 April 2024 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ Smith, Loren (21 June 2022). "Fifth of global food-related emissions due to transport". University of Sidney. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
- ^ OCLC 60533269.
- ^ "untitles" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 13 March 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f Sundberg, Todd (Spring 2018). At the Intersection of Urban Agriculture and Social Justice Activism: Practices and Perceptions in Wilmington, DE. University of Delaware.
- ^ a b Warner, Bass, and Durlach (1987). To dwell is to garden: a history of Boston's community gardens. Northeastern University Press.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c Lawson, Laura (2005). . City bountiful: a century of community gardening in America. University of California Press.
- ^ "Hazen S. Pingree Monument". historicdetroit.org/. Dan Austin.
- ^ USDA. "The School Garden | National Agricultural Library". USDA National Agricultural Library. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
- ^ "Gardening for the Common Good". library.si.edu. 2018. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
- ^ .
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ^ . Boston Parks and Recreation Department https://www.cityofboston.gov/parks/pdfs/os4b.pdf.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - .
- ^ Kerr, Laura (30 April 2007). "Resisting Agricultural Assimilation: The Political Ecology of Hmong Growers in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Region". Geography Honors Projects. Macalester College. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
- ^ L'Annunziata, Elena (2010). "FOLLOWING THE PLANT: THE POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF A HMONG COMMUNITY GARDEN". Humboldt Journal of Social Relations. 33 (1/2).
- ^ Lipman and Campbell (20 March 2024). Planning for Equitable Urban Agriculture in the United States. Springer.
- . Retrieved 27 March 2024.
- . Retrieved 27 March 2024.
- . Retrieved 27 March 2024.
- ^ "Urban Agriculture". www.usepa.gov. USEPA. 4 December 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
- ^ Kontothanasis, Georgios (2017). "Social Practices of Urban Agriculture in the Metropolitan Region of Thessaloniki". Procedia Environmental Sciences, Sustainable Synergies from Buildings to the Urban Scale. 38.
- .
- ^ Meryment, Elizabeth. "Emerging Food Movements". Body and Soul Australia.
- ^ Crawford, Andrea (12 February 2014). "What's the Difference Between a Garden and a Farm?". Slate Magazine. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- ^ "USDA ERS - Glossary". www.ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- ^ "European Federation of City Farms". cityfarms.org. Retrieved 5 December 2020.
- ^ "P-Patch Community Gardening". seattle.gov. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- JSTOR 24636254.
- ^ "The Severn Project, Our Story". thesevernproject.org. Archived from the original on 16 May 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2016.
- ^ "Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens". NICVA. 4 July 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- PMID 30905945.
- ^ "Collingwood Children's Farm in Melbourne, Australia, established in 1979 — City Farmer News". cityfarmer.info. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- ^ "History, Travel, Arts, Science, People, Places - Smithsonian". smithsonianmag.com.
- ^ "Department of Buildings". nyc.gov. Archived from the original on 13 February 2016. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
- ^ "NYC DEP - Green Infrastructure Grant Program". Archived from the original on 15 March 2014. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
- ^ Swartz, Joe (2 February 2018). "New Rooftop Farms to Sprout in Singapore!". Medium. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
- ^ "ComCrop - Singapore's first and only commercial rooftop farming company". Comcrop. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- ^ "Fisheries and Aquaculture". food and africulture organization of the united nations.
- ^ Bradley, Kirsten (19 January 2014). "Aquaponics: A Brief History of This Integrated Fish & Veggies System". Milkwood. Retrieved 20 January 2014.
- ^ Piechowiak, Mateusz. "The Full History of Vertical Farming: When Did It All Start?". vertical farming planet.
- ^ Klein-Hessling, Dr. Hermann (11 March 2021). "A LITTLE HISTORY ON THE MOST RECENT EVOLUTION OF VERTICAL, URBAN FARMING IN SINGAPORE". Association for Vertical Farming (AVF). Retrieved 11 March 2021.
- ISSN 1867-139X.
- ^ Lutkin, Aimee (7 March 2018). "The future of farming is moving indoors". world economic forum. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
- ^ Ning Yuan, Grace; B-Marquez, Gian Powell; Deng, Haoran; Iu, Anastasiia; Fabella, Melisa; B. Salonga, Reginald; Ashardiono, Fitrio; A. Cartagena, Joyce (November 2022). "A review on urban agriculture: technology, socio-economy and policy". Cellpress. 8 (11).
- )
- ^ PMID 33472636.
- .
- ^ Butler, L.; Moronek, D.M., eds. (May 2002). "Urban and Agriculture Communities: Opportunities for Common Ground". Ames, Iowa: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Fraser, Evan D.G. (2002). "Urban Ecology in Bangkok Thailand: Community Participation, Urban Agriculture and Forestry". Environments. 30: 1.
- S2CID 17487322.
- S2CID 149061121.
- ^ Katz, Michael (2015). What Kind of Problem Is Poverty? The Archeology of an Idea. University of Georgia Press. pp. 39–78.
{{cite book}}
:|work=
ignored (help) - S2CID 153660813.
- ^ S2CID 56037661.
- S2CID 54895180.
- S2CID 158771961.
- ISBN 978-1-4822-4176-1, retrieved 4 December 2021
- ISSN 2152-0801.
- ^ S2CID 153447663.
- ^ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. "Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture, Household Food Security and Nutrition". FAO. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ Sommers, L., and B. Butterfield, as cited in: Blair, D., C. Giesecke, and S. Sherman. (1991). "A Dietary, Social and Economic Evaluation of the Philadelphia Urban Gardening Project," Journal of Nutrition Education. Archived 16 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ PMID 17324956.
- ^ "The Greening of Wilmington". Out & About Greater Wilmington. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
- PMID 11027957.
- ^ "Increased community participation. [Social Impact]. Cities Without Hunger - Community Gardens: Sao Paulo (2003-2009)". SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archived from the original on 5 September 2017.
- PMID 18043762.
- S2CID 145574324.
- ^ Hales, Steve (26 July 2016). "Urban Agriculture – Why It Has a Positive Impact". My Green Hobby. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019.
- ^ "What's the Real Cost of Raising Backyard Chickens?". UrbanFarmingHQ. 29 March 2015. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 2 April 2015.
- ^ FAO. (1999). "Issues in Urban Agriculture", FAO Spotlight Magazine, January.
- ^ "Mahbuba Kaneez Hasna. IDRC. CFP Report 21: NGO Gender Capacity in Urban Agriculture: Case Studies from Harare (Zimbabwe), Kampala (Uganda), and Accra (Ghana) 1998". Archived from the original on 18 December 2007.
- ^ IDRC/ UN-HABITAT".Guidelines for Municipal Policymaking on Urban Agriculture" Urban Agriculture: Land Management and Physical Planning (2003) PDF Archived 14 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine 1.3
- ^ Alaimo, K., Beavers, A.W., Crawford, C. et al. Curr Envir Health Rpt (2016) 3: 302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-016-0105-0
- ^ "Pirog, R. and A. Benjamin. "Checking the food odometer: Comparing food miles for local versus conventional produce sales to Iowa institutions", Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, 2003" (PDF). Leopold.iastate.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ "Eat Locally, Ease Climate Change Globally". The Washington Post. 9 March 2008. Retrieved 27 May 2010.
- ^ Pirog, Rich S.; Van Pelt, Timothy; Enshayan, Kamyar; and Cook, Ellen, "Food, Fuel, and Freeways: An Iowa perspective on how far food travels, fuel usage, and greenhouse gas emissions" (2001). Leopold Center Pubs and Papers. 3. http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/leopold_pubspapers/3
- ^ a b c Xuereb, Marc. (2005). "Food Miles: Environmental Implications of Food Imports to Waterloo Region." Public Health Planner Region of Waterloo Public Health. November. https://web.archive.org/web/20180128180314/http://chd.region.waterloo.on.ca/en/researchResourcesPublications/resources/FoodMiles_Report.pdf
- ^ "Urban Agriculture". Delta Institute. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013.
- PMID 21074914.
- .
- ^ Environmental Affairs Department, City of Los Angeles. 2006. "Green Roofs - Cooling Los Angeles: A Resource Guide". http://environmentla.org/pdf/EnvironmentalBusinessProgs/Green%20Roofs%20Resource%20Guide%202007.pdf Archived 12 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- PMID 21074914.
- ^ Black, H. "Absorbing Possibilities: Phytoremediation." Environ Health Perspectives 103.12 (1995): 1106-108.
- ^ Comis, Don. (2000). "Phytoremediation: Using Plants To Clean Up Soils." Agricultural Research: n. pag. Phytoremediation: Using Plants To Clean Up Soils. USDA-ARS, 13 August 2004. Web. 25 March 2013.
- ^ Lasat, M. M. (2000). "Phytoextraction of metals from contaminated soil: a review of plant /soil/metal interaction and assessment of pertinent agronomic issues". Journal of Hazardous Substance Research. 2: 1–25.
- ^ Cluis, C. (Fall 2004). "Junk-greedy Greens: phytoremediation as a new option for soil decontamination", BioTech J. 2: 61-67.
- ^ PMID 8747015.
- ^ "Managing Urban Runoff | Polluted Runoff". Water.epa.gov. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ PMID 10698728.
- ^ a b Alaimo, K., Packnett, E., Miles, R., Kruger, D. (2008). "Fruit and Vegetable Intake among Urban Community Gardeners". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. (1499-4046),40 (2), p. 94.
- ^ a b Bellows, Anne C., Katherine Brown, Jac Smit. ""Health Benefits of Urban Agriculture" (paper and research conducted by members of the Community Food Security Coalition's North American Initiative on Urban Agriculture)". Foodsecurity.org. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - PMID 21596466.
- PMID 17383272.
- ^ S2CID 4676055.
- .
- ^ Tom Bosschaert (15 December 2007). "Bosschaert, T "Large Scale Urban agriculture Essay", Except Consultancy, 2007". Except.nl. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ^ USDA; Economic Research Service (June 2009). "Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences: A Report to Congress". Administrative Publication No. (AP-036): 160. Archived from the original on 6 April 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
- ^ Designed for Disease: The Link Between Local Food Environments and Obesity and Diabetes. California Center for Public Health Advocacy, PolicyLink, and the UCLA Center for Health Policy Research. April 2008.
- S2CID 40262352.
- ISBN 9780262300223.
- ISBN 9780262300223.
- ^ "Growing Food and Justice for All". Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
- ^ Teresa M. Mares, Devon G. Pena (2011). "Environmental and Food Justice: Toward Local, Slow, and Deep Food Systems". In Alison Hope Alkon, Julian Agyeman (ed.). Cultivating Food Justice: Race, Class, and Sustainability. MIT Press. pp. 197–221.
- ^ a b McClintock, Nathan. (2008). From Industrial Garden to Food Desert: Unearthing the Root Structure of urban agriculture in Oakland, California. UC Berkeley: Institute for the Study of Societal Issues.
- ^ Sapolsky, Robert, "Sick of Poverty," Scientific American, Dec. 2005, pp: 93-99.
- ^ .
- PMID 26272830.
- ^ Alternatives for Community & Environment. Environmental Justice and the Green Economy. A Vision Statement and Case Studies for Just and Sustainable Solutions. Rep. Roxbury, MA: Alternatives for Community & Environment, 2010. Print.
- ^ Murphy, Kate. "For Urban Gardeners, Lead Is a Concern". The New York Times. 13 May 2009.
- ^ Schultz, Colin (13 February 2014). "New York Could Grow All Its Own Food. Theoretically, New York City could become largely self-sufficient". Smithsonian. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
- ^ André Viljoen, Katrin Bohn and Joe Howe, 2005, Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: Designing Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities, Oxford: Architectural Press
- ^ Smit, Jack, et al. "Urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities: Using Wastes and Idle Land and Water Bodies as Resources"
- ^ Can a hands-on teaching tool affect students' attitudes and behavior regarding fruit and vegetables? by Lineberger Sarah E. and J. M. Zajicek, HortTechnology 10 (3) 593-596 -2000
- .
- ^ S2CID 154867736.
- .
- ISBN 978-1-59726-588-1.[page needed]
Notes
- Wayland, Michael (29 August 2013). "GM expanding urban gardening program in Detroit". MLive. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
- Farming Goes Vertical
- Skyfarming (2 April 2007). New York Magazine.
- City Farm Grows Jobs, Knowledge, and Tomatoes, article about Chicago's City Farm
Further reading
- "URBACT - Sustainable food in urban communities".
- Pinderhughes, Raquel (2004). Alternative Urban Futures: Planning for sustainable development in cities throughout the world. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 185–217. ISBN 0-7425-2366-7