Utility cycling

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
"Urban cycling" redirects here. The UCI Urban Cycling World Championships combine certain BMX and mountain bike discplines.

Cycling in Amsterdam
Bike riders in Beijing
Mangoes for sale loaded on a bicycle in Guntur, India

Utility cycling encompasses any cycling done simply as a means of transport rather than as a sport or leisure activity. It is the original and most common type of cycling in the world.[1] Cycling mobility is one of the various types of private transport and a major part of individual mobility.

Overview

Copenhagen inner city cycle traffic peak hour
Copenhagen inner city cycle traffic peak hour

Utility or "transportational" cycling generally involves traveling short and medium distances (several kilometres, not uncommonly 3–15 kilometres one way, or somewhat longer), often in an urban environment.[citation needed] It includes commuting (i.e. going to work, school or university), going shopping and running errands, as well as heading out to see friends and family or for other social activities.

It also includes economic activity such as the delivering of goods or services. In cities, the

taxicabs
.

Utility cycling is known to have several social and economic benefits.

mobility and social inclusiveness,[3] and benefits to child development.[3]

In the Chinese city of Beijing alone, there are an estimated four million bicycles in use (it has been estimated that in the early-1980s there were approximately 500 million cyclists in China).[6][7] As of 2000, there were an estimated 80 million bicycles in Japan, accounting for 17% of commuter trips,[8] and in the Netherlands, 27% of all trips are made by bicycle.[3][9]

Cycling has been considered

[in] economic and social terms, [influencing] or [impacting] upon transport, mobility, environment and climate change, the economy and tourism. ... As a means of transport over short distances, cycling brings certain economic, environmental and health-related benefits.

— 
European Parliament Think Tank[10]

Cycling mobility can be contrasted with mass automobility for which it is an immediate competitor in cities and for shorter distances.

Cities are a hotbed for experimenting with new bicycle-based forms of mobility like

bicycle sharing, electric bicycles and transport of bulky goods with cargo bikes.[10]
After decades of relative stagnation in bicycle development, new technologies and materials are tried to further improve upon the environmental footprint of the bicycle. [11] Even though it is recognized that cycling - the one foremost active mobility besides walking - is the most sustainable kind of mobility and means of transportation, in some countries, cycling is still the mode of transport for the poor; in others, cycling is seen fit only for leisure purposes.[12] In a 2010 document requested by the European Parliament Committee on Transport and Tourism that mobility not only entails the ability to travel, but also encompasses, more importantly, the possibility for the traveller to decide when and where to travel.[13] In terms of this flexibility and cost, bicycles rank among the top choices for shorter distances, up to several kilometers.

History

Main article: History of the bicycle

The development of the safety bicycle was arguably the most important change in the history of the bicycle. It shifted their use and public perception from being a dangerous toy for sporting young men to being an everyday transport tool for men—and, crucially, women—of all ages. By the start of the 20th century, cycling had become an important means of transportation, and in the United States an increasingly popular form of recreation. Bicycling clubs for men and women spread across the U.S. and across European countries. Cycling steadily became more important in Europe over the first half of the twentieth century, but it dropped off dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910. Automobiles became the preferred means of transportation. Over the 1920s, bicycles gradually became considered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the United States were made for children. For most of the twentieth century, the great majority of cycling in the UK took place on roads. Cycling is one of the modes of transport for student transport.

The bicycle and the cyclist's equipment

omafiets
utility bicycle with chain guard and skirt guard

school satchels
.

Panniers or special luggage carriers (including waterproof packing bags) enable the transport of goods and are used for shopping. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children. Trailers of various types and load capacities may be towed to greatly increase cargo capacity. In many jurisdictions bicycles must be fitted with a bell; reflectors; and, after dark, front and rear lights
.

The use by cyclists of vests or armbands fluorescent in daylight or reflective at night can increase a cyclist's conspicuity, although these are not an alternative to a legally compliant lighting system. A report on the promotion of walking and cycling (Hydén, et al., 1999) discussed safety clothing and equipment and stated that "there is no doubt that both pedestrian reflectors and bicycle helmets are reducing the injury risk of their users quite considerably",[14] although this assertion is not universally accepted.

A delibike in Buenos Aires delivering bread

Factors that influence levels of utility cycling

Many different factors combine to influence levels of utility cycling.[15] In developing economies, a large amount of utility cycling may be seen simply because the bicycle is the most affordable form of vehicular transport available to many people. In richer countries, where people can have the choice of a mixture of transport types, a complex interplay of other factors influences the level of bicycle use.

Factors affecting cycling levels may include:

town planning
(including quality of infrastructure: cyclist "friendly" vs. cyclist "hostile"), trip-end facilities (particularly secure parking), retail policy, marketing the public image of cycling, integration with other transport modes, cycle training, terrain (hilly vs. flat), distance to destinations, levels of motorized transport and climate as well as cost. In developed countries cycling has to compete with, and work with, alternative transport modes such as private cars, public transport and walking. Thus cycling levels are not influenced just by the attractiveness of cycling alone, but also by what makes the competing modes more or less attractive.

In developed countries with high utility cycling levels, utility cyclists tend to undertake relatively short journeys. According to Irish 1996 Census data, over 55% of cycling workers travelled 3 miles (4.8 km) or less, 27% 5 miles (8 km) or less and only 17% travelled more than 5 miles in their daily commute. It can be argued that factors that directly influence trip length or journey time are among the most important in making cycling a competitive transport mode. Car ownership rates can also be influential. In New York City, more than half of all households do not own a car (the figure is even higher in Manhattan, over 75%), and walk/bicycle modes of travel account for 21% of all modes for trips in the city.[16] E-bike use was shown to increase the distance cycled for commuting as well as the amount of physical activity among E-bike users in seven European cities.[17]

Decisions taken by various levels of government, as well as local groups, residents' organizations and public- and private-sector employers, can all affect the so-called "modal choice" or "

modal split
" in daily transport. In some cases, various factors may be manipulated in a manner that deliberately seeks to encourage or discourage various transport modes, including cycling.

Last mile distribution using a bicycle in Vienna, Austria[18]

The League of American Bicyclists has designated a set of five criteria[19][20] for evaluating the friendliness of a town or city to bicycles. These criteria are classified under the headings of: Engineering, Encouragement, Evaluation and Planning, Education, Enforcement.

Town planning

Main article: Bicycle transportation planning and engineering

Trip length and journey times are key factors affecting cycle use.

Town planning may have a key effect in deciding whether key destinations, schools, shops, colleges, health clinics, public transport interchanges remain within a reasonable cycling distance of the areas where people live. The urban form can influence these issues, compact and circular settlement patterns tending to promote cycling. Alternatively, the low-density, non-circular (i.e., linear) settlement patterns characteristic of urban sprawl tends to discourage cycling. In 1990, the Dutch adopted the "ABC" guidelines, specifically limiting developments that are major attractants to locations that are readily accessible by non-car users.[21]

US-style housing division

Settlements that provide a dense road network consisting of

housing subdivision model where minor roads are disconnected and only feed into a street hierarchy of progressively more "arterial" type roads. Such communities may discourage cycling by imposing unnecessary detours and forcing all cyclists onto arterial roads, which may be perceived as busy and dangerous, for all trips regardless of destination or purpose.[22]

There is evidence that people who live in such estates are heavier than people who live in places where walking and cycling are more convenient. It is also reported that the extra motor-traffic such communities generate tends to increase overall per-capita traffic casualty rates. Designs that propose to resolve the contradiction between the cul-de-sac and the traditional interconnected network, such as the

Fused Grid, have been proposed and built with varying levels of success.[23] Particular issues have arisen with personal security and public order problems in some housing schemes using "back alley" or "back garden" type links. The UK Manual for Roads (2007) states: "The basic tenet is 'public fronts and private backs'. Ideally, and certainly, in terms of crime prevention, back gardens should adjoin other back gardens or a secure communal space. ... If streets are bounded by back-garden fences or hedges, security problems can increase, drivers may be encouraged to speed, land is inefficiently used, and there is a lack of a sense of place."[22]
: p56 

Cycling infrastructure

Main article:
Utrecht
in the Netherlands. The Fietspad avert conflicts with motorized traffic and safeguards utility cycling.

Cycling is a common mode of transport in the Netherlands, with 36% of the people listing the bicycle as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day[25][nb 1] as opposed to the car by 45% and public transport by 11%. Cycling has a modal share of 27% of all trips (urban and rural) nationwide.[28]

This high modal share for bicycle travel is enabled by unusually flat

cycle paths, cycle tracks, protected intersections, ample bicycle parking
and by making cycling routes shorter, quicker and more direct than car routes.

In the countryside, a growing number of inter-city bicycle paths connect the Netherlands' villages, towns and cities: some of these paths are part of the

Dutch National Cycle Network, a network of routes for bicycle tourism which reaches all corners of the nation.[29]

In cities modal share for bicycles is even higher, such as Amsterdam which has 38%.[30]

Cycling infrastructure attempts to maximise cyclists safety against the other road users. There is, however, a lack of published evidence identifying a change in rates of collisions after implementation of cycling infrastructure.[24]

Marketing: the public image of cycling

As with other activities, cycling can be promoted by marketing. Promotors may include official agencies and authorities.

Positive marketing of cycling

Two themes predominate in cycling promotion 1) the benefits for the cyclist and 2) the benefits for society and the environment that may occur if more people choose to cycle. The benefits for the cyclist tend to focus issues like reduced journey times in congested urban conditions and the health benefits which the cyclist obtains through regular exercise. Societal benefits focus on general environmental and public health issues. Promotional messages and tactics may include:

  • financial savings on transportation
  • keeping travel times predictable; in peak traffic, cycling can be the fastest way of moving around town
  • ensuring best use of the space available (during trips and also while parked), therefore reducing congestion on the roads
  • reminding people of the advantages in terms of health and of effectiveness of using the bicycle
  • making maps of journeys that can be completed by bicycle
  • reduction of CO2 and harmful emissions by fewer people driving
    motor vehicles[31][32]
  • reducing demand for oil-based fuels
  • the safety in numbers effect if more people cycle
  • reduced noise pollution in urban areas
  • amusement
  • cyclist health[33]
    • lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease (when practised for more than a quarter of an hour a day at a moderate pace) and therefore improvement of individual and public health
    • using cycling to tackle the obesity crisis facing rich countries
    • the financial savings for society if general health improves

Further following positive aspects are:[13]

  • transport efficiency - cycling is the fastest and most flexible mode for 'door to door' travel, like in bicycle commuting.
  • environmental benefits - most
    energy efficient
    means of transport, with the least pollution.
  • health and fitness issues - 4 hours of cycling per week or approximately 10 km of cycling per day, equivalent to the average cycle trip to and from work, is an adequate level of exercise.
  • economic and social impacts - cycling provides transport to segments of the population who would not otherwise be able to travel independently for reasons of age (student transport), poverty, insufficient public transport infrastructure, etc.

Negative marketing of utility cycling

Various interests may wish to portray a negative image of utility cycling on public roads for various reasons. Some governments, wishing to promote private car use, have organized and funded publicity designed to discourage road cycling. Official road safety organisations have been accused of distributing literature that emphasizes the danger of cycling on roads while failing to address attitudinal issues among the drivers of motor vehicles who are the main source of road danger.[34][35][36] Some road safety authorities have been accused of having a deliberate policy of discouraging cycling as a means of reducing bicyclist casualty statistics. In 2003, Shanghai police officials released statements blaming cyclists as the cause of "gridlock" in the city and promoting plans to ban cyclists from the city streets.[37] Starting in the 1970s, the authorities in the city of Jakarta declared "war" on the "becak" or Indonesian cycle rickshaw blaming them for traffic congestion among other things.[38]

As with other sellers of

consumer goods, the car industry's marketing efforts frequently try to associate the use of their product with a perception of increased social status. Observers in some car-focused cultures have noted a tendency to perceive or portray people who use bicycles as members of a social "out-group" with attributed negative connotations.[39] In such cultures, such attitudes are displayed in attacks on cyclists in the media. Common themes include blanket descriptions of cyclists as a group who do not pay taxes, who break the law and who have no, or reduced, "right" to use public roads.[40]

Negative aspects are:

  • lack of or inadequacy of road and parking infrastructures - roads are built for cars and bicycle paths are often in worse condition than roads. Cycling infrastructure and bicycle-friendliness is generally neglected in favor of a car-centric infrastructure.
  • cyclists’ safety and security - the common space for cars and bicycles on the road is not complemented by the same rights and significantly higher risk of accidents for cyclists.
  • weather conditions - rain and snow impact the unsheltered cyclist more than car drivers.
  • poor intermodality - because of lack of transport facilities for the bicycles themselves (in trains, buses, etc.) for longer distances.

Retail policy

If significant use of bicycles for shopping trips is to be achieved, sufficient retail services must be maintained within reasonable cycling distances of residential areas. In countries like Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany the high levels of utility cycling also includes shopping trips e.g. 9% of all shopping trips in Germany are by bicycle.[41] It is arguable that this is related to policies that favour access to retail services by non-motorised modes. The Danish 1997 Planning Act requires that planning shall encourage a diverse mix of retail shops in small and medium-sized towns and in individual districts of large cities and ensure that retail trade uses will be placed in locations to which people have good access by walking, bicycling and public transport. From the mid-1970s the Netherlands has had policies in place to severely restrict the growth of large out-of-town retail developments.[21] Germany has had federal planning regulations in place to restrict retail uses to designated areas since the 1960s. In addition, since the 1970s federal regulations have been in place specifying that developments above a certain size (1,200 m2) be assessed regarding potential adverse effects. These federal regulations are further strengthened by regionally adopted regulations. This includes regulations specifying that new retail centers be limited to selling products not readily provided by shops at inner city/town center locations.[21] In Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, this approach not restricted to planning guidelines and is also supported by a ban on below-cost selling.[42] This supports smaller shops by preventing large multiples from engaging in predatory pricing practices by aggressively discounting key goods to use as so-called loss leaders.

Alternative retail policies

From the 1980s to mid-1990s the UK operated a system of laissez-faire with regard to retail policy. The "great car economy" philosophy of the Thatcher government directly favored the growth of out-of-town retail centers at the expense of established retail services in British towns and cities. The UK Town and Country Planning Association cites research by the New Economics Foundation that notes a continuing process of change in retail provision.[43]

  • General stores are closing at the rate of one per day.
  • Between 1997 and 2002, specialized stores, including butchers, bakers, fishmongers, and newsagents, closed at the rate of 50 per week.
  • Nearly 30,000 independent food, drink, and tobacco retailers, or over 40%, have been lost over the past decade.

It is arguable that in such a retail/planning policy environment use of bicycles ceases to be a viable option for many shoppers and access to a private motor-car or public transport becomes a necessary prerequisite for access to basic services.

Cycle training

Cycle training is another measure that is advocated as a means of maintaining or increasing levels of cycle use. The training involves teaching existing or potential cyclists bike handling, various roadcraft or "cyclecraft" skills (vehicular cycling) and educating them on the safe, lawful use of the roads. Bicycle training schemes can be differentiated according to whether they are aimed at children or adults.

In the UK, the now superseded National Cycle Proficiency scheme was focused on primary schoolchildren aged 8 and above. In this, children would start by gaining an off-road certificate working up to their on-road certificate by the age of ten. Initial training and examination took place on simulated road layouts within school playgrounds. This approach has now been supplemented by the new National Standard for cycle training which is more focussed on practical on-road training.[44] This is part of Cycling England's portfolio of practical assistance to local authorities and other bodies, aimed at achieving their aim of "More cycling, more safely, more often".[45]

In the United States, the League of American Bicyclists Smart Cycling 101/201 courses, based on the Effective Cycling program, has modules aimed at all ages from children to adult beginners to more experienced adults. It is argued that such schemes do not just build confidence in the students but also make it more likely that parents will let their children cycle to school. Cycle training may also be offered in an attempt to overcome cultural unfamiliarity with cycling or perceived cultural obstacles to bicycle use. In the Netherlands, some cycle training courses are targeted at women from immigrant communities, as a means of overcoming such obstacles to cycling by women from developing countries.[46]

User associations

Bicing station in Barcelona

As with other walks of life, utility cyclists may form associations in order to promote and develop cycling as an everyday form of transport. The European Cyclists' Federation is the umbrella body for such groups in Europe. These associations may lobby various institutions to encourage political support or to oppose measures that they judge counter-productive, such as to oppose the introduction of compulsory bicycle helmet legislation.

Free bicycle/short term hire schemes

Main article: Bicycle-sharing system

Local bike-sharing schemes, a business which blossomed at the turn of the 21st century, are more oriented to utility cycling than other bike rentals.

Influence of technology

Modern bicycle technology supports the shift towards utility cycling:

  • easy-running thick tires or damped springs allow cycling over curbs
  • dynamo, brakes, and gears improved and increased the riding safety, allowing usage also for elderly
  • electric support was further developed in
    electric power-assist system
    and eases the take up for untrained

See also

References

  1. ISBN 0-300-10418-9
    .
  2. ^ Schantz P, Salier Eriksson, J, Rosdahl, H. 2020. Perspectives on exercise intensity, volume and energy expenditure in habitual cycle commuting. Front. Sports Act. Living 2:65
  3. ^
    Dutch Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
    ).
  4. ^
    PMID 15385407
    .
  5. ^ TNO, the Dutch institute for applied scientific research. More bicycling to work lowers sickness absence and saves employers 27 millions euro [1] accessed 1 February 2009
  6. ^ China ends 'bicycle kingdom' as embracing cars, China Daily, 2004-11-11 (Accessed 2007-01-26)
  7. Irish Times
    2006-06-17
  8. ^ A Study on Measures to Promote Bicycle Usage in Japan, Hirotaka Koike, Akinori Morimoto, Kaoru Itoh, Department of Civil Engineering, Utsunomiya University Velomondial Conference Proceedings, Amsterdam 2000
  9. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2004.05.003
    .
  10. ^ a b "Cycling mobility in the EU". European Parliament Think Tank. 20 May 2015.
  11. ISSN 2352-1465
    .
  12. ^ "International Cycling Conference 2017" (PDF). Umweltbundesamt. 2017.
  13. ^ a b "The Promotion of Cycling" (PDF). ECF. 2010.
  14. ISBN 9282849422
    .
  15. Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve
    , November 2011, 318 pages.
  16. ^ Putative source according to the 1995 Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey
  17. hdl:10044/1/77527
    .
  18. ^ www.stadtlogistik.info
  19. ^ "bicyclefriendlycommunity.org" (PDF).
  20. ^ "Virgin Vacations – 11 Most Bicycle Friendly Cities in the World". virgin-vacations.com.
  21. ^ a b c Legislative Tools for Preserving Town Centres and Halting the Spread of Hypermarkets and Malls Outside of Cities: Land Use Legislation and Controls of Conflicts of Interest in Land Use Decision Making, by Ken Baar, PhD Institute for Transportation and Development Policy, New York NY 10001, 2002
  22. ^
    ISBN 978-0-7277-3501-0
    UK Department for Transport, 2007
  23. ^ Durning 1996 cited in Safe Travels, Evaluating Mobility Management Traffic Safety Impacts by Todd Litman & Steven Fitzroy Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 1250 Rudlin Street, Victoria, BC, V8V 3R7, CANADA
  24. ^
    PMID 26661390
    .
  25. ^ Quality of Transport report (PDF) (Report). European Commission. December 2014. p. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 29 December 2016.
  26. ^ "Why is cycling so popular in the Netherlands?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 March 2014.
  27. ^ Future of Transport report (PDF) (Report). European Commission. March 2011. p. 8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
  28. ^ "Cycling in the Netherlands" (PDF) (Press release). The Netherlands: Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. Fietsberaad (Expertise Centre for Cycling Policy). 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2014.
  29. ^ "The Netherlands, a great destination for cycling holidays". Nederland Fietsland website. Retrieved 14 December 2013.
  30. ^ "Cycling facts and figures". I amsterdam website. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 9 May 2014.
  31. hdl:10230/53376
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  32. hdl:10044/1/89043
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  33. S2CID 26016523
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  34. ^ Government helmet campaign could frighten cyclists off the road, Cheltenham cyclist, Summer 2003
  35. ^ Two-headed ministry threatens future of cycling Cycle Campaign Network News, Issue No. 65 July 2003
  36. ^ CTC submission to Choosing Health? A consultation on action to improve people’s health, CTC submission to the Wanless review, Cyclists Touring Club, 2004
  37. ^ Travel: Bike ban for Shanghai, CNN.Com Tuesday, 9 December 2003 (Accessed 28 October 2007)
  38. ^ The Becak: A Re(d)ordered Cycle Rebecca Lemaire, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, April 2000
  39. ^ Drivers' perceptions of cyclists, Basford, Reid, Lester, Thomson and Tolmie, TRL Report TRL549, Transport Research Laboratory, 2002
  40. ^ Anti-cyclist media bias Wheels of Justice (Accessed 2 December 2007)
  41. ^ Shopping by bike, BUND Freunde der erde, Landesverband Berlin e.V (Accessed 28 October 2007)
  42. ^ The Groceries Order – Essential for Competition, Consumer Choice and Value, The Retail Grocery, Dairy And Allied Trades' Association, RGDATA, Dublin, Ireland, 2005
  43. ^ Planning for Accessible and Sustainable Retail, The Town and Country Planning Association, July 2005
  44. ^ Bikeability – The new National Standard for Cycle Training, Cycling England, 2006 (Accessed 2007-02-22)
  45. ^ More people cycling, more safely, more often, Cycling England, 2006 (Accessed 2007-02-22)
  46. ^ Get on your bike! Bicycle- and traffic lessons for foreigners in Tilburg, the Netherlands, Angela van der Kloof, Centre for Foreign Women, Velomondial Conference Proceedings, Amsterdam 2000

Notes

  1. ^ Up from 31% naming the bike their main mode of transport for daily activities in 2011.[26][27]

Bibliography

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