Voice of America
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Abbreviation | VoA |
---|---|
Founded | February 1, 1942; 82 years ago (1942-02-01) |
Type | International state-funded broadcaster |
Headquarters | Wilbur J. Cohen Federal Building |
Location |
|
Director | John Lippman (acting, since October 2023)[1] |
Budget (Fiscal year 2023) | US$267.5 million[2] |
Staff (2021) | 961[3] |
Website | www |
Voice of America (VOA or VoA) is the state-owned news network and international radio broadcaster of the United States of America. It is the largest and oldest of the U.S.-funded international broadcasters.[4][5][6] VOA produces digital, TV, and radio content in 49 languages, which it distributes to affiliate stations around the world.[7] Its targeted and primary audience is non-American. As of November 2022, its reporting reached 326 million adults per week across all platforms.[8]
VOA was established in 1942, and the VOA charter was signed into law in 1976 by U.S. President
Voice of America is seen by some listeners as having a positive impact while others like lecturer Faizullah Jan of Pakistan's
Languages
The Voice of America website had five English-language broadcasts as of 2014 (worldwide, Learning English, Cambodia, Zimbabwe, and Tibet). Additionally, the VOA website has versions in 48 foreign languages.[17][2]
Radio programs are marked with an "R"; TV programs with a "T":
- Afan Oromo R
- Albanian R, T
- AmharicR
- Armenian T
- Azerbaijani T
- Bambara R
- Bangla R, T
- Bosnian T
- Burmese R, T
- CantoneseR, T
- Creole
- Dari PersianR, T
- French R, T
- Georgian R
- Haitian Creole R
- Hausa R
- Indonesian R, T
- Khmer R, T
- Kinyarwanda R
- Kirundi
- Korean R
- Kurdish R
- Lao R
- Lingala R
- Macedonian T
- Mandarin R, T
- Ndebele
- PashtoT
- Persian R, T
- Portuguese R
- Rohingya
- Russian T
- Sango R
- Serbian T
- Shona R
- Sindhi
- Somali R
- Spanish R, T
- Swahili R
- Thai R
- TibetanR, T
- Tigrinya R
- Turkish T
- Ukrainian T
- UrduR, T
- Uzbek R, T
- Vietnamese R, T
- Wolof
- English R, T
The number of languages varies according to the priorities of the United States government and the world situation.[18][19]
History
American private shortwave broadcasting before World War II
Before World War II, all American
In 1939, the U.S.
A licensee of an international broadcast station shall render only an international broadcast service which will reflect the culture of this country and which will promote international goodwill, understanding and cooperation. Any program solely intended for, and directed to an audience in the continental United States does not meet the requirements for this service.[25]
Around 1940, shortwave signals to
World War II
Here on Getty images
Here on Getty Images
Even before the December 1941 Japanese
The
By the end of the war, VOA had 39 transmitters and provided service in 40 languages.
Also included among the
Cold War
The VOA ramped up its operations during the Cold War.[37] Foy Kohler, the director of VOA during the Cold War, strongly believed that the VOA was serving its purpose, which he identified as aiding in the fight against communism.[38] He argued that the numbers of listeners they were getting such as 194,000 regular listeners in Sweden, and 2.1 million regular listeners in France, was an indication of a positive impact. As further evidence, he noted that the VOA received 30,000 letters a month from listeners all over the world, and hundreds of thousands of requests for broadcasting schedules.[39] There was an analysis done of some of those letters sent in 1952 and 1953 while Kohler was still director. The study found that letter writing could be an indicator of successful, actionable persuasion. It was also found that broadcasts in different countries were having different effects. In one country, regular listeners adopted and practiced American values presented by the broadcast. Age was also a factor: younger and older audiences tended to like different types of programs, no matter the country.[40] Kohler used all of this as evidence to claim that the VOA helped to grow and strengthen the free world. It also influenced the UN in their decision to condemn communist actions in Korea, and was a major factor in the decline of communism in the "free world, including key countries such as Italy and France.[38] In Italy, the VOA did not just bring an end to communism, but it caused the country to Americanize.[41] The VOA also had an impact behind the Iron Curtain. Practically all defectors during Kohler's time said that the VOA helped in their decision to defect.[42] Another indication of impact, according to Kohler, was the Soviet response. Kohler argued that the Soviets responded because the VOA was having an impact. Based on Soviet responses, it can be presumed that the most effective programs were ones that compared the lives of those behind and outside the Iron Curtain, questions on the practice of slave labor, as well as lies and errors in Stalin's version of Marxism.[38]
In 1947, VOA started broadcasting to the
Control of VOA passed from the State Department to the
Sometime around 1954, VOA's headquarters were moved from New York to Washington D.C. The arrival of cheap, low-cost transistors enabled the significant growth of shortwave radio listeners. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, VOA's broadcasts were deemed controversial, as Hungarian refugees and revolutionaries thought that VOA served as a medium and insinuated the possible arrival of the Western aid.[49]
Throughout the Cold War, many of the targeted countries' governments sponsored jamming of VOA broadcasts, which sometimes led critics to question the broadcasts' actual impact. For example, in 1956, Polish People's Republic stopped jamming VOA transmissions,[50] but People's Republic of Bulgaria continued to jam the signal through the 1970s. In 1966 Edward R. Murrow said that: "The Russians spend more money jamming the Voice of American than we have to spend for the entire program of the entire Agency. They spend about $125 million ($1,100,000,000 in current dollar terms) a year jamming it."[51] Chinese-language VOA broadcasts were jammed beginning in 1956 and extending through 1976.[52] However, after the collapse of the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union, interviews with participants in anti-Soviet movements verified the effectiveness of VOA broadcasts in transmitting information to socialist societies.[53] The People's Republic of China diligently jams VOA broadcasts.[54] Cuba has also been reported to interfere with VOA satellite transmissions to Iran from its Russian-built transmission site at Bejucal.[55] David Jackson, former director of Voice of America, noted: "The North Korean government doesn't jam us, but they try to keep people from listening through intimidation or worse. But people figure out ways to listen despite the odds. They're very resourceful."[56]
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, VOA covered some of the era's most important news, including Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 "I Have a Dream" speech[58] and Neil Armstrong's 1969 first walk on the Moon, which drew an audience estimated at between 615 and 750 million people. In 1973, due to the détente policies in the Cold War, Soviet jamming of the VOA ceased; it restarted in 1979.[59]
In the early 1980s, VOA began a $1.3 billion rebuilding program to improve broadcast with better technical capabilities. During the implementation of the
In 1989, Voice of America expanded its
Post–Cold War
With the breakup of the Soviet bloc in Eastern Europe, VOA added many additional language services to reach those areas. This decade was marked by the additions of services in
In 1993, the
In 1994, Voice of America became the first broadcast-news organization to offer continuously updated programs on the Internet.[70]
Cuts in services
The Arabic Service was abolished in 2002 and replaced by a new radio service, called the Middle East Radio Network or Radio Sawa, with an initial budget of $22 million. Radio Sawa offered mostly Western and Middle Eastern popular songs with periodic brief news bulletins. Today, the network has expanded to television with Alhurra and to various social media and websites.[71] On May 16, 2004, Worldnet, a satellite television service, was merged into the VOA network.
Radio programs in Russian ended in July 2008.[72] In September 2008, VOA eliminated the Hindi-language service after 53 years.[72] Broadcasts in Ukrainian, Serbian, Macedonian, and Bosnian also ended.[73] These reductions were part of American efforts to concentrate more resources to broadcast to the Muslim world.[72][73] In September 2010, VOA began radio broadcasts in Sudan. As U.S. interests in South Sudan grew, there was a desire to provide people with free information.[74]
In 2013, VOA ended foreign-language transmissions on shortwave and medium wave to Albania, Georgia, Iran, and Latin America, as well as English-language broadcasts to the Middle East and Afghanistan.[75] This was done due to budget cuts.[75] On July 1, 2014, VOA cut most of its English-language transmissions to Asia,[76] as well as shortwave transmissions in Azerbaijani, Bengali, Khmer, Kurdish, Lao, and Uzbek.[76] The following month, the Greek service ended after 72 years on air.[77][78]
Russia
In January 2016, upon his arrival in Moscow, Russian authorities detained and then deported Jeff Shell, the Chairman of the Broadcasting Board of Governors that oversees the Voice of America, despite his having a valid Russian visa.[79] Russian authorities did not explain their actions.[79]
In December 2017, under a new directive from Russia's
In March 2022, VOA and other news broadcasters, including the
List of directors
- 1941–1942 Robert E. Sherwood (Foreign Information Service)
- 1942–1943 John Houseman
- 1943–1945 Louis G. Cowan
- 1945–1946 John Ogilvie
- 1948–1949 Charles W. Thayer
- 1949–1952 Foy D. Kohler
- 1952–1953 Alfred H. Morton
- 1953–1954 Leonard Erikson
- 1954–1956 John R. Poppele
- 1956–1958 Robert E. Burton
- 1958–1965 Henry Loomis
- 1965–1967 John Chancellor
- 1967–1968 John Charles Daly
- 1969–1977 Kenneth R. Giddens
- 1977–1979 R. Peter Straus
- 1980–1981 Mary G. F. Bitterman
- 1981–1982 James B. Conkling
- 1982 John Hughes
- 1982–1984 Kenneth Tomlinson
- 1985 Gene Pell
- 1986–1991 Dick Carlson
- 1991–1993 Chase Untermeyer
- 1994–1996 Geoffrey Cowan
- 1997–1999 Evelyn S. Lieberman
- 1999–2001 Sanford J. Ungar
- 2001–2002 Robert R. Reilly
- 2002–2006 David S. Jackson
- 2006–2011 Danforth W. Austin
- 2011–2015 David Ensor
- 2016–2020 Amanda Bennett
- 2020–2021 Robert R. Reilly
- 2021–present (vacant)
Agencies
Voice of America has been a part of several agencies. From its founding in 1942 to 1945, it was part of the
52 Documentary
In 2021, Voice of America launched 52 Documentary, a series that publishes weekly films about human experiences.[92] They publish on the streaming app, VOA+, and YouTube. Films average 10–15 minutes and are translated with captions in several languages, including Russian, Persian, Mandarin, Urdu, and English. Euna Lee directs the program.[93]
Smith–Mundt Act
From 1948 until its amendment in 2013, Voice of America was forbidden to broadcast directly to American citizens, pursuant to § 501 of the Smith–Mundt Act.[94] The intent of the 1948 legislation was to protect the American public from propaganda by its own government and to avoid any competition with private American companies.[95] The act was amended via the passage of the Smith-Mundt Modernization Act provision of the National Defense Authorization Act for 2013.[96] The amendment was intended to adapt the law to the Internet and to allow American citizens access to VOA content.[97]
Policies
VOA charter
Under the Eisenhower administration in 1959, VOA Director Henry Loomis commissioned a formal statement of principles to protect the integrity of VOA programming and define the organization's mission, and was issued by Director George V. Allen as a directive in 1960 and was endorsed in 1962 by USIA director Edward R. Murrow.[98] The principles were signed into law (Public Laws 94-350 and 103–415) on July 12, 1976, by President Gerald Ford. It reads:
The long-range interests of the United States are served by communicating directly with the peoples of the world by radio. To be effective, the Voice of America must win the attention and respect of listeners. These principles will therefore govern Voice of America (VOA) broadcasts. 1. VOA will serve as a consistently reliable and authoritative source of news. VOA news will be accurate, objective, and comprehensive. 2. VOA will represent America, not any single segment of American society, and will therefore present a balanced and comprehensive projection of significant American thought and institutions. 3. VOA will present the policies of the United States clearly and effectively, and will also present responsible discussions and opinion on these policies.[11]
"Firewall"
The Voice of America Firewall was put in place with the 1976 VOA Charter and laws passed in 1994 and 2016 as a way of ensuring the integrity of VOA's journalism. This policy fights against propaganda and promotes unbiased and objective journalistic standards in the agency. The charter is one part of this firewall and the other laws assist in ensuring high standards of journalism.[99][100]
"Two-source rule"
According to former VOA correspondent Alan Heil, the internal policy of VOA News is that any story broadcast must have two independently corroborating sources or have a staff correspondent witness an event.[101]
VOA Radiogram
VOA Radiogram was an experimental Voice of America program that started in March 2013 and ended in June 2017, which transmitted
- Shortwave Radiogram program schedule[106]
Day | Time ( UTC ) |
) | Origin |
---|---|---|---|
Saturday | 1600–1630 | 9.4 | Space Line, Bulgaria |
Sunday | 0600–0630 | 7.73 | WRMI, Florida |
Sunday | 2030–2100 | 11.58 | WRMI, Florida |
Sunday | 2330–2400 | 11.58 | WRMI, Florida |
Transmission facilities
The
Between 1983 and 1990, VOA made significant upgrades to transmission facilities in Botswana (
VOA and USAGM continue to operate shortwave radio transmitters and
List of languages
Controversies
This article's "criticism" or "controversy" section may compromise the article's neutrality. Please help rewrite or integrate negative information to other sections through discussion on the talk page. (August 2022) |
Abdul Malik Rigi interview
On April 2, 2007,
Tibetan alleged protester
In February 2013, a documentary released by China Central Television interviewed a Tibetan alleged self-immolator who failed to kill himself. The interviewee said he was motivated by Voice of America's broadcasts of commemorations of people who committed suicide in political self-immolation. VOA denied instigating self-immolations and demanded that the Chinese station retract its report.[117]
Trump presidency politicization efforts
After the
On April 10, 2020, the White House published an article in its daily newsletter critical of VOA coverage of the coronavirus pandemic.[122] Emails revealed in a Freedom of Information Act request showed Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) press official Michawn Rich had sent a memo to agency employees stating in part, "as a rule, do not send up [interview] requests for [VOA contributor] Greta Van Susteren or anyone affiliated with Voice of America", referencing the White House story.[123] On April 30, The Washington Post, referring to Steven L. Herman who covered the White House for VOA, reported Vice President Mike Pence's office "threatened to retaliate against a reporter who revealed that Pence's office had told journalists they would need masks for Pence's visit to the Mayo Clinic – a requirement Pence himself did not follow."[124]
On June 3, 2020, the US Senate confirmed Michael Pack, a conservative documentaries filmmaker and close ally of Steve Bannon, to serve as head of the US Agency for Global Media, which oversees VOA.[125] Subsequently, Director Bennet and deputy director Sandy Sugawara resigned from VOA. CNN reported on June 16 that plans for a leadership shakeup at VOA were being discussed, including the possibility that controversial former White House aide Sebastian Gorka would be given a leadership role at VOA.[126] On June 17, the heads of VOA's Middle East Broadcasting, Radio Free Asia, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and the Open Technology Fund were all fired, their boards were dissolved, and external communications from VOA employees were made to require approval from senior agency personnel in what one source described as an "unprecedented" move, while Jeffrey Scott Shapiro, like Pack a Bannon ally, was rumored to be in line to head the Office of Cuba Broadcasting.[127] Four former members of the advisory boards filed suit challenging Pack's standing to fire them.[128] On July 9, NPR reported VOA would not renew the work visas of dozens of non-resident reporters, many of whom could face repercussions in their home countries.[129] In late July, four contractors and the head of VOA's Urdu-language service were suspended after a video featuring extensive clips from a Muslim-American voter conference, including a campaign message from then-Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden, was determined not to meet editorial standards and taken down.[130]
On August 12, 2020, USAGM chief financial officer Grant Turner and general counsel David Kligerman were removed from their positions and stripped of their security clearances, reportedly for their opposition to what Turner called "gross mismanagement", along with four other senior agency officials.
In response to Pack's August 27 interview with The Federalist website, a group of VOA journalists sent a letter to VOA Acting Director Elez Biberaj complaining that Pack's "comments and decisions 'endanger the personal security of VOA reporters at home and abroad, as well as threatening to harm U.S. national security objectives.'"[135] VOA's response was that "it would not respond directly to the letter because it was 'improper' and 'failed to follow procedure.' Instead, the leadership of USAGM and VOA 'are handling the choice of complaint transmission as an administrative issue,' which suggested that the journalists could face sanctions for their letter," according to The Washington Post. In the same story, the Post reported that VOA Spanish-language service White House correspondent's Brigo Segovia's interview with an official about the administration's response to Pack's personnel and other moves had been censored and his own access to VOA's computer system restricted.[136]
On July 20, 2020, District of Columbia attorney general
On September 29, six senior USAGM officials filed a whistleblower complaint in which they alleged that Pack or one of his aides had ordered research conducted into the voting history of at least one agency employee, which would be a violation of laws protecting civil servants from undue political influence.
Suspended officials from Voice of America sued the agency news outlet on October 8. They accused Pack of using Voice of America as a vehicle to promote the personal agenda of President Trump and of violating a statutory firewall intended to prevent political interference with the agency, and they sought their reinstatement.[148]
In June 2020, Democratic presidential candidate Joe Biden's campaign told Vox News that Biden would fire Pack if Biden won election.
In December 2020, The Washington Post reported that Pack was refusing to cooperate with
On January 11, 2021, VOA interim director Reilly ordered veteran reporter Patsy Widakuswara off the White House beat. Earlier that day, Widakuswara had followed US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo out of the building after his speech criticizing the VOA[158] and his VOA-sponsored interview with VOA Director Robert Reilly during which reporters were not allowed to ask questions.[159] Widakuswara asked Pompeo what he was doing to repair the international reputation of the U.S. and whether he regretted saying there would be a second Trump administration.[160][161] The theme of the preceding interview with VOA Director Robert Reilly was reportedly the dangers of censorship.[162] In response, dozens of VOA journalists, including Widakuswara, wrote and circulated a petition calling on Reilly and public affairs specialist Elizabeth Robbins to resign.[163] In a statement, U.S. House Foreign Affairs Committee Chairman Gregory Meeks and ranking member Michael McCaul said, "Absent a legitimate reason for this move, which has not been provided, we believe she should be reinstated".[159] Widakuswara was reinstated to the White House beat after President Biden requested the resignation of Michael Pack.[158]
On January 19, the nonprofit
Also on January 19, the last full day of the Trump presidency, Pack named a slate of five directors to head each of the three USAGM boards for RFE/RL, Radio Free Asia, and Middle East Broadcasting Networks: conservative radio talk show host Blanquita Cullum, Liberty Counsel officer Johnathan Alexander, former White House staffer Amanda Milius, conservative writer Roger Simon, and Center for the National Interest Fellow Christian Whiton.[166]
The following day, Pack resigned at the request of the Biden administration.[167] On January 21, Shapiro resigned from the Office of Cuba Broadcasting. Biden named veteran VOA journalist Kelu Chao to replace Pack. Chao in turn dismissed Riley and Robbins from VOA, naming Yolanda Lopez, another VOA veteran, as acting director; Lopez had also been reassigned in the wake of the Pompeo interview.[168] On January 22, the Biden administration fired Victoria Coates and her deputy Robert Greenway from the Middle East Broadcasting Networks, naming Kelley Sullivan as acting head.[169][170]
Guo Wengui interview
On April 19, 2017, the VOA Mandarin Service interviewed Chinese real estate tycoon Guo Wengui in a live broadcast. The government of China warned VOA representatives not to interview Guo about his "unsubstantiated allegations".[171][172] The interview was scheduled by the team for 3 hours. After Guo alleged that he had evidence of corruption among the members of the Politburo Standing Committee of China, the highest political authority of China, the interview was abruptly cut off by VOA leadership, after one hour and 17 minutes. Guo's allegations involved Fu Zhenhua and Wang Qishan (a member of the Politburo Standing Committee, and the leader of the anti-graft movement).[173]
On August 27, four U.S. Congressmen requested that the
Relay station used as a CIA black site
It has been reported that a Voice of America relay station in
Horn of Africa service
The Amharic Service was started in 1982.[180] From 1982 to 1986, the VOA service had a mix of staff consisting of former members of the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) and US-educated staff without strong political involved in the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution and the associated student movement of the revolutionary period. Reporting was mostly critical of the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam.[180]
The 1986 to 1996 phase was according to Annette Sheckler, who became head of the VOA Horn of Africa Service in December 1998, opposed to the
Peter Heinlein led the service from 2012 to 2014. In 2013, he wrote a complaint about his view of problems in the service. He saw a significant flaw being the confusion of roles in which translators, untrained in the principles and methods of journalism, took on the role of journalists.[181] The service was mostly seen as anti-Ethiopian government until 2018, when Negussie Mengesha, the head of the VOA Africa division for several years, met the newly appointed Ethiopian prime minister Abiy Ahmed.[181]
In May 2021, several former employees accused VOA's
In June 2021, Mail & Guardian reported on an investigation based on "hundreds of internal memos and interviews with about a dozen former and current members" of the VOA Horn of Africa service.[181] Mail & Guardian stated that during the Tigray War, the only major foreign news service that was not harassed by Ethiopian security services was VOA. VOA gave frequent coverage to the Mai Kadra massacre, mostly attributed to Tigrayan youth and documented by Amnesty International, while later focusing on the Ethiopian government's dismissal of Amnesty International's report on the Axum massacre rather than on the methods and content of the report itself. During 107 meetings of the Horn of Africa service from November 4, 2020, to April 30, 2021, during the Tigray War, most (81%) of the meetings did not have approvals by Tizita Belachew, head of the service, or by Solomon Abate, of stories on the war that included Tigrayan points of view; a majority of the stories only showed government or military officials' points of view; a fifth of the meetings had no reports on the war. Instructions emailed to staff stated that the terms "civil war" and "war" were forbidden in reporting on the Tigray War, with Scott Stearns writing on 14 November, according to Mail & Guardian, "There are to be no deviations from these instructions by any member of any Africa division language service on any platform."[181]
Twitter label controversy
After Elon Musk acquired social media platform Twitter, in April 2023 National Public Radio's main Twitter account was briefly designated as "US state-affiliated media", a label typically reserved for foreign media outlets that directly represented the point of view of their respective governments, like Russia's RT and China's Xinhua.[183][184][185] A few days later, Twitter changed the designation of NPR's account from "state-affiliated" to "government-funded".[186] Twitter then added the label to other sources such as PBS, the BBC, and Voice of America, which all three objected to.[187] VOA criticized the decision, stating "the label gives the impression that VOA is not an independent outlet," and that "its editorial independence is protected by regulations and a firewall."[188]
Hamas coverage
After the
In different regions
China
A study was done on Chinese students in America. It found that through the VOA, they disapproved of the actions of the Chinese government.[15] Another study was done on Chinese scholars in America, and found that the VOA had an effect on their political beliefs. Their political beliefs did not change in relation to China, though, as they did not tend to believe the VOA's reports on China.[190]
Kurdistan and Iran
VOA's service in Iran had a negative impact on
Pakistan
The VOA's DEEWA Radio airs in Pakistan. Although in 2015 some listeners were suspicious that the program was promoting an American agenda, others said they were experiencing a positive effect. Some listeners felt that the programs were giving a voice to the voiceless, giving them a sense of empowerment.[14] In 2018, the Pakistani authorities blocked the website of VOA's Pashto and Urdu language radio service.[193][194]
Russia
In response to the request of the United States Department of Justice that RT register as a foreign agent under the Foreign Agents Registration Act, Russia's Justice Ministry Konovalov labeled Voice of America and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty as foreign agents in December 2017.[195][196]
Turkey
On June 30, 2022, the Turkish media watchdog, Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK), blocked access to VOA's website amerikaninsesi.com in Turkey because VOA had not applied for the necessary licence, which would subject VOA to certain obligations.[197][198] The RTÜK regulation requires foreign news outlets that publish in Turkey to apply for publication licenses, mandates that at least half of the media organization be owned by a Turkish citizen, and would force VOA to remove content deemed inappropriate by RTÜK.[199] VOA Turkish subsequently broadcast over a different VOA website domain name, voaturkce.com, which in August 2023 was blocked as well.[200] VOA said that "Given VOA's status as a public service international broadcaster legally required to provide 'accurate, objective, and comprehensive' news coverage to its global audience, VOA cannot comply with any directive intended to enable censorship."[200] VOA Turkey, after it was blocked, shared instructions on its social media accounts as to how to use VPN to access its content.[201]
See also
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ "Yolanda López Stepping Down as Acting VOA Director". Voice of America. September 29, 2023.
- ^ a b c ""The Voice of America, the largest U.S. international broadcaster, provides a consistently reliable and authoritative source of news, tells America's story and presents a balanced and comprehensive projection of significant American thought and institutions."" (PDF).
- ^ "VOA". U.S. Agency for Global Media. Archived from the original on October 9, 2021. Retrieved March 14, 2022.
- ^
- "RCFP urges Congress to protect Voice of America's editorial independence". Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. April 28, 2020. Archived from the original on June 27, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
- "Voice of America directors resign". Association for International Broadcasting. June 16, 2020. Archived from the original on April 23, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2020. by
- Wright, Kate; Scott, Martin; Bunce, Mel (June 25, 2020). "Voice of America struggle for independence highlights issue of state role in government-backed media". The Conversation. Archived from the original on June 27, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
- JSTOR 10.7312/heil12674. Archivedfrom the original on June 27, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
- from the original on June 22, 2022. Retrieved December 12, 2020.
- ^ "VOA Launches Programming in Sindhi". Inside VOA. July 1, 2022. Archived from the original on July 8, 2022. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
- ^ "VOA's Weekly Audience Grows by 14 Million". Voice of America. November 15, 2022.
- ^ "Mission and Values". insidevoa.com. Archived from the original on October 19, 2017. Retrieved February 5, 2021.
- ^ 90 Stat. 823 Archived October 9, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, 108 Stat. 4299 Archived October 9, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b VOA Public Relations. "VOA Charter". Inside VOA. Voice of America. Archived from the original on November 20, 2016.
- ^ Borchers, Callum (January 26, 2017). "Voice of America says it won't become Trump TV". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 18, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2017.
- ^ VOA Public Relations (December 5, 2016). "The Largest U.S. International Broadcaster" (PDF). VOA News. Voice of America. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 6, 2020. Retrieved August 11, 2017.
- ^ a b Jan, F (2015). "International Broadcasting as Component of U.S. Public Diplomacy (A Case Study of Voice of America's DEEWA Radio)" (PDF). Dialogue. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2021.
- ^ a b Zhang, Lena Liqing (2002). "Are They Still Listening? Reconceptualizing the Chinese Audience of the Voice of America in the Cyber Era". Journal of Radio Studies. 9 (2): 317–337. Archived from the original on June 27, 2022. Retrieved November 29, 2020.
- ^ Robinson, Dan (March 30, 2017). "Spare the indignation: Voice of America has never been independent". Columbia Journalism Review. Archived from the original on May 20, 2022. Retrieved June 25, 2022.
- ^ "USAGM". USAGM.
- ^ "FAQs, How do you make decisions to cut or add languages or programs?". bbg.gov. Archived from the original on December 1, 2014. Retrieved December 3, 2014.
- ^ "VOA Languages" (PDF). Voice of America. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 25, 2021. Retrieved August 27, 2021.
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Bibliography
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- Rugh, William A. (2006). American Encounters with Arabs: The "Soft Power" of U.S. Public Diplomacy in the Middle East. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-98817-3.
U.S. Agency for Global Media networks | |
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Defunct stations | |
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