VX (nerve agent)

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with V-sub x.

VX[1]
Stereo structural formula VX ((S)-phosphinate)
SP-(−)-VX enantiomer
Ball and stick model of VX ((R)-phosphinate)
Names
Preferred IUPAC name
S-{2-[Di(propan-2-yl)amino]ethyl} O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate
Other names
[2-(Diisopropylamino)ethyl]-O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate
Ethyl {[2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl]sulfanyl}(methyl)phosphinate
Ethyl N-2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate
Identifiers
3D model (
JSmol
)
ChEBI
ChEMBL
ChemSpider
MeSH VX
UNII
  • InChI=1S/C11H26NO2PS/c1-7-14-15(6,13)16-9-8-12(10(2)3)11(4)5/h10-11H,7-9H2,1-6H3 checkY
    Key: JJIUCEJQJXNMHV-UHFFFAOYSA-N checkY
  • InChI=1/C11H26NO2PS/c1-7-14-15(6,13)16-9-8-12(10(2)3)11(4)5/h10-11H,7-9H2,1-6H3
    Key: JJIUCEJQJXNMHV-UHFFFAOYAV
  • CCOP(C)(=O)SCCN(C(C)C)C(C)C
  • O=P(OCC)(SCCN(C(C)C)C(C)C)C
Properties
C11H26NO2PS
Molar mass 267.37 g·mol−1
Appearance amber liquid
Odor odourless
Density 1.0083 g cm−3
Melting point −51 °C (−60 °F; 222 K)
Boiling point 300 °C (572 °F; 573 K)
log P 2.047
Vapor pressure 0.09 Pa
Hazards
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
NFPA 704 four-colored diamondHealth 4: Very short exposure could cause death or major residual injury. E.g. VX gasFlammability 1: Must be pre-heated before ignition can occur. Flash point over 93 °C (200 °F). E.g. canola oilInstability 1: Normally stable, but can become unstable at elevated temperatures and pressures. E.g. calciumSpecial hazards (white): no code
4
1
1
Flash point 159 °C (318 °F; 432 K)[3]
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
7 μg/kg (intravenous, rat)[2]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
☒N verify (what is checkY☒N ?)
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VX is an extremely toxic

translation of earlier discoveries of organophosphate toxicity in pesticide research. In its pure form, VX is an oily, relatively non-volatile liquid that is amber-like in colour.[4] Because of its low volatility, VX persists in environments where it is dispersed.[5][6]

VX, short for "venomous agent X",

Kim Jong Nam, had the substance thrown in his face in Kuala Lumpur International Airport
on the 13th February 2017 by two women. He died being rushed to hospital approximately 15 minutes later.

The substance is extremely deadly; VX fatalities occur with exposure to tens of milligram quantities via inhalation or absorption through skin; VX is more potent than

asphyxiation.[11]

The danger of VX, in particular, lies in direct exposure to the chemical agent persisting where it was dispersed, and not through its evaporating and being distributed as a vapor; it is not considered a vapor hazard due to its relative

chemical weapon, it is categorized as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations and is banned by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993,[13] where production and stockpiling of VX exceeding 100 grams (3.53 oz) per year is outlawed. The only exception is for "research, medical or pharmaceutical purposes outside a single small-scale facility in aggregate quantities not exceeding 10 kg (22 lb) per year per facility".[14]

Physical properties

VX is an odorless and tasteless[15][16] chiral organophosphorous chemical with a molecular weight of 267.37 g/mol.[17] Under standard conditions it is an amber-coloured liquid with a boiling point of 298 °C (568 °F), and a freezing point of −51 °C (−60 °F).[18] Its density is similar to that of water.[19] It has a log P value of 2.047, meaning it is relatively hydrophobic with about 100-fold more partitioning into octanol, over water.[20] Its low vapor pressure of 0.09 pascals (1.3×10−5 psi) gives it a low volatility, resulting in a high persistence in the environment.[21]

When weaponized, it can be dispersed as a liquid, aerosol or as a mixture with a clay or talc thickening agent.[21]

Mechanism of action

VX is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.[22] It blocks the function of the

asphyxiation.[11]
Accumulation of acetylcholine in the brain also causes neuronal
glutamate release.[24]

The extreme toxicity of VX is partly due to the fact that the inhibitor was designed to be an excellent structural mimic for the transition state of the natural substrate (acetylcholine) of acetylcholinesterase. VX has a very high "on-rate" to react with the target enzyme and form a stable P-O-C bond (phosphorylation).[25] However, compared with other highly toxic nerve agents like soman or sarin, VX undergoes relatively slow "aging". Aging is a time-dependent side reaction (loss of an alkoxyl group) that occurs on nerve agents after phosphorylation and renders the nerve agent-acetylcholinesterase complex highly resistant to regeneration by any known antidote. Slower aging by VX suggests it should be possible to develop more effective antidotes and treatments.[26]

The reaction products of acetylcholinesterase with VX before and after the "aging" reaction were solved in near atomic resolution by X-ray crystallography to aid in antidote development.[27][28] The X-ray structures revealed the specific parts of the VX molecule that interact with key residues and sub-sites of the target enzyme. The structural kinetic of phosphorylation followed by aging also showed an unexpected conformational change in the catalytic triad suggestive of an "induced fit" between the VX molecule and acetylcholinesterase.

Chemistry

Synthesis

VX is

chiral at its phosphorus atom. The individual enantiomers are identified as SP-(−)-VX, and RP-(+)-VX (where the "P" subscript highlights that the chirality is at phosphorus).[1]

VX is produced via the

diester. This is then transesterified with N,N-diisopropylaminoethanol to produce QL
, a mixed phosphonite. Finally, this immediate precursor is reacted with sulfur to form VX.

VX can also be delivered in

Bigeye aerial chemical bomb. It may also be produced by mixing with sulfur compounds, as with the liquid dimethyl polysulfide mixture (known as NM) in the canceled XM736 8-inch projectile program.[citation needed
]

Solvolysis

Like other

organophosphorus nerve agents, VX may be destroyed by reaction with strong nucleophiles. The reaction of VX with concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide results in two competing solvolysis reactions: cleavage of either the P–O or P–S esters. Although the P–S cleavage is the dominant pathway, the product of P–O bond cleavage is the toxic phosphonic thioester EA-2192 and both reactions are slow.[30] In contrast, reaction with the hydroperoxide anion (hydroperoxidolysis) leads to exclusive cleavage of the P–S bond and a more rapid overall reaction.[30][31]

P–S cleavage (non-toxic products)
P-O cleavage (EA-2192 product is still toxic)

Medical aspects

Further information: Nerve agent § Biological effects

Symptoms of exposure

Early symptoms of skin contact include local sweating and muscular twitching at the area of exposure, followed by nausea or vomiting. Early symptoms of exposure to VX vapor include rhinorrhea (runny nose) and tightness in the chest with shortness of breath (bronchial constriction). Miosis (pinpointing of the pupils) may be an early sign of agent exposure but is not usually used as the only indicator of exposure.[32]

Toxicology

VX is extremely toxic. The potentially fatal dose is only slightly higher than the dose having any effect at all, and the effects of a fatal dose are so rapid that there is little time for treatment.[5] The median lethal dose (LD50), the exposure required to kill half of a tested population, as estimated for 70 kg human males via exposure to the skin is reported to be 5–10 mg (0.00035 oz), and the lethal concentration time (LCt50), measuring the concentration of the vapor or aerosol per duration of time exposed, is estimated to be 10–15 mg·min/m3 for VX at an exposure time of two minutes and a minute-volume of respiration of 15 L (minute-volume of 15 L corresponds to slight physical activity, i.e., slow walking).[33][34][5]

Treatment

When treating VX exposure, primary consideration is given to removal of the liquid agent from the skin, before removal of the individual to an uncontaminated area or atmosphere. After this, the victim is decontaminated by washing the contaminated areas with household bleach and flushing with clean water, followed by removal of contaminated clothing and further skin decontamination. When possible, decontamination is completed before the casualty is taken for further medical treatment.[35][36][37]

An individual known to have been exposed to a nerve agent, or who exhibits definite signs or symptoms of nerve-agent exposure is generally given the antidotes atropine and pralidoxime (2-PAM), and in the case of convulsions an injected sedative or antiepileptic such as diazepam.[38] In several nations the nerve agent antidotes are issued for military personnel in the form of an autoinjector such as the United States military Mark I NAAK.[32]

Atropine blocks a subset of acetylcholine receptors known as muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAchRs), so that the buildup of acetylcholine produced by loss of the acetylcholinesterase function has a reduced effect on their target receptor.[citation needed] 2-PAM reactivates the acetylcholinesterase enzyme (AChE), thus reversing the effects of VX.[citation needed] VX and other organophosphates block AChE activity by binding to and covalently inactivating the enzyme via transfer of the phosphonate moiety from VX to the active site of AChE; this inactivates AChE and produces an inactive by-product from the remaining portion of the VX molecule.[citation needed] Pralidoxime (2-PAM) removes this phosphate group.[citation needed]

Diagnostic tests

Ethyl methylphosphonic acid. R1 = ethyl, R2 = hydrogen, R3 = methyl.

Controlled studies in humans have shown that minimally toxic doses cause 70–75% depression of erythrocyte cholinesterase within several hours of exposure. The serum level of ethyl methylphosphonic acid (EMPA), a VX hydrolysis product, was measured to confirm exposure in one poisoning victim. There also exist procedures for determination of VX hydrolysis products in urine and of VX adducts to albumin in blood.[39]

History

Further information: Nerve agent § History

Discovery

The chemists Ranajit Ghosh and J. F. Newman discovered the V-series nerve agents at the British firm ICI in 1952, patenting diethyl S-2-diethylaminoethyl phosphonothioate (agent VG) in November 1952.[citation needed] Further commercial research on similar compounds ceased in 1955 when its lethality to humans was discovered. The U.S. started production of large amounts of VX in 1961 at Newport Chemical Depot.[citation needed]

The discovery occurred when the chemists were investigating a class of

Rainbow Code Purple Possum, with the Russian V-Agent (VR) coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG). The name is a contraction of the words "venomous agent X".[41]

Beginning in 1959, the United States Army began volunteer testing of VX in humans. Dr. Van M. Sim underwent an intravenous infusion of VX to evaluate its effects and to establish a baseline for future experimentation. After approximately 3.5 hours following initial administration of the agent, Sim suddenly became pale and delirious. The experiment was immediately terminated to preserve his life. In their conclusion, the researchers estimated that 2.12 μg/kg of VX delivered intravenously over the course of several hours would be the maximum tolerable dosage and that any more would risk death in a human subject.[42]

Use as a weapon

In 1988, a United Nations inquiry established that Cuba was responsible for deploying VX against Angolan insurgents during the Angolan Civil War.[43][44] UN toxicologists obtained trace elements of VX from soil, water, and plant samples taken from areas where Cuban troops had recently carried out counter-insurgency operations.[43] Patients demonstrating symptoms of exposure to nerve agents first began appearing in Angolan hospitals around 1984.[45]

There was evidence of a combination of chemical agents having been used by

UNSCOM that Iraq had researched VX but had failed to weaponize the agent due to production failure. After U.S. and allied forces invaded Iraq, no VX agent or production facilities were found. However, UNSCOM laboratories detected traces of VX on warhead remnants.[47]

In December 1994 and January 1995,

the attack on the Tokyo subway
), VX was not used for mass murder.

On 13 February 2017,

Kim Jong-un, died after an assault at Kuala Lumpur International Airport in Malaysia. According to the authorities he was murdered by poisoning with VX which was found on his face.[49][50] The authorities further reported that one of the women suspected of applying the nerve agent experienced some physical symptoms of VX-poisoning.[51] The director of a non-proliferation research program of the Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey stated that VX fumes would have killed the suspected attackers even if they had been wearing gloves, suggesting that the VX was applied as two non-lethal components that would mix to form VX only on the victim's face.[52]

Worldwide stockpiles

Some countries known to possess VX are the United States, Russia,

Al Qaeda.[citation needed] The U.S. had obtained soil samples identified as containing O-ethyl hydrogen methylphosphonothioate (EMPTA), a chemical used in the production of VX which may also have commercial applications. Chemical weapons experts later suggested that the widely used fonofos organophosphate insecticide could have been mistaken for EMPTA.[56] Cuba obtained VX during the 1980s and deployed it during its military intervention in Angola.[43]

In 1969, the U.S. government cancelled its chemical weapons programs, banned the production of VX in the United States, and began the destruction of its stockpiles of agents by a variety of methods. Early disposal included the U.S. Army's CHASE (Cut Holes And Sink 'Em) program, in which old ships were filled with chemical weapons stockpiles and then scuttled. CHASE 8 was conducted on 15 June 1967, in which the steamship Cpl. Eric G. Gibson was filled with 7,380 VX rockets and scuttled in 2,200 m (7,200 ft) of water off the coast of Atlantic City, New Jersey. Incineration was used for VX stockpile destruction starting in 1990 with Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System in the North Pacific with other incineration plants following at Deseret Chemical Depot, Pine Bluff Arsenal, Umatilla Chemical Depot and Anniston Army Depot with the last of the VX inventory destroyed on 24 December 2008.[57]

Stockpile elimination

Worldwide, VX disposal has continued since 1997 under the mandate of the Chemical Weapons Convention. When the convention entered force, the parties declared worldwide stockpiles of 19,586 tonnes (21,590 short tons) of VX. As of December 2015, 98% of the stockpiles had been destroyed.[58]

In fiscal year 2008, the

M55 rockets, 19 bulk containers holding 640 kg (1,400 lb) each, and one M23 chemical landmine.[59]

The Newport Chemical Depot began VX stockpile elimination using chemical neutralization in 2005. VX was hydrolyzed to much less toxic byproducts by using concentrated caustic solution, and the resulting waste was then shipped off-site for further processing. Technical and political issues regarding this secondary byproduct resulted in delays, but the depot completed their VX stockpile destruction in August 2008.[60]

The remaining VX stockpile in the U.S. was treated by the

Army Chemical Materials Agency, which completed its stockpile destruction activities in March 2012. The Blue Grass Pilot Plant has been plagued by repeated cost over-runs and schedule slippages since its inception.[61]

In Russia, the U.S. provided support for these destruction activities with the

Russian chemical weapons, which were stored at seven sites.[63]

In popular culture

One of the best-known references to VX in popular culture is its use in the 1996 film

Alcatraz. The film uses artistic license
, notably with VX being ascribed corrosive powers it does not possess, permitting an early scene in which a VX victim is shown with his face melting, rather than dying through asphyxiation.

Other references to VX are found in the 2012 film

24, has a similar storyline.[66] The fifth episode of the 2020 anime series The Millionaire Detective Balance: Unlimited features a tear gas bomb with canisters loaded with VX gas and placed inside a cabinet of a safe room
within the embassy; the protagonist Daisuke Kambe and two other characters were trapped inside the room after relocating themselves due to security reasons, and figuring out how to escape before the bomb detonates.

The album

chemical weapons
called "VX Gas Attack".

In the BBC show Spooks, series 2 episode 5, a dirty bomb using VX is said to have gone off in a 'training exercise'.

In the video game Everybody's Gone to the Rapture, VX is alluded to as a nerve agent used by the government to contain a pattern which infects and kills humans and other animals.

In the book Nightshade, the twelfth book in the Alex Rider Series, VX plays a major role, as it is used by terrorists in an attempt to kill over half of the British government.

In the book Ice Cold, the eighth Rizzoli and Isles novel by Tess Gerritsen, VX gas is featured and responsible for many deaths.

The second episode of the TV series Seal Team (season 1) focuses on a chemical weapons lab in an abandoned hospital, producing VX gas.

In the Netflix show Designated Survivor, agent Hannah Wells is killed by VX in season 3, episode 7.

In the CBS show MacGyver, season 2 episode 9, a VX canister is the main plot point.

In the 2003 video game Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six 3: Raven Shield, the acquisition of VX by terrorists is a major plot point in both versions of the game.

In the

Crackle show Startup, American soldiers discover a computer used by apparent terrorists in Aleppo, Syria. "VX components" are displayed as an item for purchase on the computer, which is logged into Araknet, a dark web
created by the protagonists of the series.

See also

References

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