VY Canis Majoris
Observation data J2000.0
| |
---|---|
Constellation | Canis Major |
Right ascension | 07h 22m 58.32877s[1] |
Declination | −25° 46′ 03.2355″[1] |
Apparent magnitude (V) | 6.5–9.6[2] |
Characteristics | |
Evolutionary stage | Red hypergiant
|
Spectral type | M3–M4.5[3] (M2.5[4]–M5e Ia[5]) |
Apparent magnitude (U) | 12.01[6] |
Apparent magnitude (B) | 10.19[6] |
Apparent magnitude (V) | 7.95[6] |
Apparent magnitude (J) | 1.98[6] |
Apparent magnitude (H) | 0.44[6] |
Apparent magnitude (K) | -0.72[6] |
U−B color index | +2.32[7] |
B−V color index | +2.057[1] |
V−R color index | +2.20[7] |
Variable type | |
Details | |
Myr | |
J07225830-2546030 | |
Database references | |
SIMBAD | data |
VY Canis Majoris (abbreviated to VY CMa) is an extreme oxygen-rich (O-rich)
No evidence has been found that it is part of a multiple star system. Its great
The radius of VY CMa is very roughly 1,420 times that of the Sun (R☉), which is close to the modelled maximum, the Hayashi limit, a volume nearly 3 billion times that of the Sun.[3] Taking this mid-point estimate as correct, an object travelling at the speed of light would take 6 hours to go around its surface, compared to 14.5 seconds for the Sun.[18] If this star replaced the Sun its surface would, per this approximation, be beyond the orbit of Jupiter.[3]
Observational history
The first known-recorded observation of VY Canis Majoris is in the star catalogue of the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande in 1801,[b] which lists it as a 7th order of magnitude star. Further quite frequent studies of its apparent magnitude imply the light of the star as viewed from Earth has faded since 1850, which could be due to emission changes or a denser part of its surrounds becoming interposed (extinction).[19] Since 1847, VY Canis Majoris has been described as a
Giving spectral lines in brackets, the star is a strong emitter of OH (1612 MHz), H
2O (22235.08 MHz), and SiO (43122 MHz) masers, which has been proven to be typical of an OH/IR star.[21][22][23] Molecules, such as HCN, NaCl, PN, CH, CO, CH
3OH, TiO, and TiO
2 have been detected.[3][24][25][26][27][excessive citations]
The variation in the star's brightness was first described in 1931, when it was listed (in German) as a
Combining data from the mentioned telescope with others from the
Distance
In 1976, Lada and Reid
Melnik and others later prefer a range centred on 1.2 kiloparsecs (about 3,900 light-years).[34]
Distances can be calculated by measuring
2O masers using VERA interferometry from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan gave a parallax of 0.88±0.08 mas, corresponding to a distance of 1.14+0.11
−0.09 kpc (about 3,720+360
−300 ly).[36] In 2012, observations of SiO masers using very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) from Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) independently derived a parallax of 0.83±0.08 mas, corresponding to a distance of 1.20+0.13
−0.10 kpc (about 3,910+423
−326 ly).[10] These imply the cloud (Sh2-310) is less remote than thought or that the star is a foreground object.[16]
The
Variability
VY Canis Majoris is a
VY CMa is sometimes considered as the prototype for a class of heavily mass-losing OH/IR supergiants, distinct from the more common asymptotic giant branch OH/IR stars.[40]
Spectrum
The spectrum of VY Canis Majoris is that of a high-luminosity
The present spectral classification system is inadequate to this star's complexities. The class depends on which of its complex spectral features are stressed. Further, key facets vary over time as to this star. It is cooler and thus redder than M2, and is usually classified between M3 and M5. A class as extreme as M2.5 appeared in a study of 2006.[4] The luminosity class is likewise confused and often given only as I, partly because luminosity classes are poorly defined in the red and infrared portions of the spectrum. One study though, gives a luminosity class of Ia+ which means a hypergiant or extremely luminous supergiant.[42]
Physical properties
A very large and luminous star, VY CMa is among the most extreme stars in the Milky Way and has an effective temperature below 4,000 K (3,730 °C; 6,740 °F). It occupies the upper-right hand corner of the HR diagram although its exact luminosity and temperature are uncertain. Most of the properties of the star depend directly on its distance.
Luminosity
The
Most of the output of VY CMa is emitted as infrared radiation, with a maximum emission at 5–10 μm, which is in part caused by reprocessing of the radiation by the circumstellar nebula.[9][31] Many older luminosity estimates are consistent with current ones if they are re-scaled to the distance of 1.2 kpc.[36] Despite being one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way, much of the visible light of VY CMa is absorbed by the circumstellar envelope, so the star needs a telescope to be observed. Removing its envelope, the star would be one for the naked eye.[24]
Mass
Since this star has no companion star, its mass cannot be measured directly through gravitational interactions. Comparison of the effective temperature and bolometric luminosity compared to evolutionary tracks for massive stars suggest its initial mass was 25±10 M☉ for a rotating star but current mass 15 M☉—or 32 M☉ at first if non-rotating falling to present-day 19 M☉,[3] and an age of 8.2 million years (Myr).[10] Older studies have found much higher initial masses (thus also higher current masses) or a progenitor mass of 40–60 M☉ based on old luminosity estimates.[14][46]
Mass loss
VY CMa has a strong stellar wind and is losing much material due to its high luminosity and quite low surface gravity. It has an average mass loss rate of 6×10−4 M☉ per year, among the highest known and unusually high even for a red supergiant, as evidenced by its extensive envelope.[47][39] It is thus an exponent for the understanding of high-mass loss episodes near the end of massive star evolution.[48] The mass loss rate probably exceeded 10−3 M☉/yr during the greatest mass loss events.[47]
The star has produced large, probably convection-driven, mass-loss events 70, 120, 200, and 250 years ago. The clump shed by the star between 1985 and 1995 is the source of its hydroxyl maser emission.[49]
Temperature
The effective temperature of this star is uncertain. Some signature changes in its spectrum correspond to temperature variations. Early estimates of the mean temperature assumed values below 3,000 K based on a spectral class of M5.[43][44] In 2006, its temperature was calculated to be as high as 3,650±25 K, corresponding to a spectral class of M2.5,[4] yet this star is usually considered as an M4 to M5 star. Adopting the latter classes with the temperature scale proposed by Emily Levesque gives a range of between 3,450 and 3,535 K.[50]
Size
The calculation of the radius of VY CMa is complicated by the extensive circumstellar envelope of the star. VY CMa is also a pulsating star, so its size changes with time. Earlier direct measurements of the radius at infrared (K-band = 2.2 µm) wavelength gave an angular diameter of 18.7±0.5 mas, corresponding to radii above 3,000 R☉ (2.1×109 km; 14 au; 1.3×109 mi) at an assumed distance of 1.5 kpc, considerably larger than expected for any red supergiant or red hypergiant.[43] However, this is probably larger than the actual size of the underlying star and the angular diameter estimate appears exceedingly large due to interference by the circumstellar envelope.[31][9][3] In 2006–2007 radii of 1,800–2,100 R☉ have been derived from the estimated luminosity of 430,000 L☉ and temperatures of 3,450–3,535 K.[31][9]
On 6 and 7 March 2011, VY CMa was observed at near-infrared wavelengths using interferometry at the Very Large Telescope. The size of the star was calculated using the Rosseland Radius, the location at which the optical depth is 2⁄3,[51] with two modern distances of 1.14+0.11
−0.09 and 1.20+0.13
−0.10 kpc.[36][10] Its angular diameter was directly measured at 11.3±0.3 mas, which corresponds to a radius of 1,420±120 R☉ at a distance of 1.17+0.08
−0.07 kpc. The high spectral resolution of these observations allowed the effects of contamination by circumstellar layers to be minimised. An effective temperature of 3,490±90 K, corresponding to a spectral class of M4, was then derived from the radius and a luminosity of 270,000±40,000 L☉ which is based on the distance and a measured flux of (6.3±0.3)×10−13 W/cm2.[3] In late 2013, a radius of 2,069 R☉ was determined, based on a rather cool adopted temperature of 2,800 K and a luminosity of 237,000 L☉.[52]
Most radius estimates of the VY CMa are considered as the size for the optical photosphere while the size of the star for the radio photosphere is calculated to be twice that of the size of the star for the optical photosphere.[5] Despite the mass and very large size (though some estimates give smaller sizes), VY CMa has an average density of 5.33 to 8.38 mg/m3 (0.00000533 to 0.00000838 kg/m3), it is over 100,000 times less dense than Earth's atmosphere at sea level (1.2 kg/m3).
Largest star
VY Canis Majoris has been known to be an extreme object since the middle of the 20th century, although its true nature was uncertain.[41][53] In the late 20th century, it was accepted that it was a post-main sequence red supergiant. Its angular diameter had been measured and found to be significantly different depending on the observed wavelength. The first meaningful estimates of its properties showed a very large star.[54][55]
Early direct measurements of the radius at infrared (K-band = 2.2 µm) wavelength gave an angular diameter of 18.7±0.5 mas, corresponding to radii above 3,000 R☉ (2.1×109 km; 14 au; 1.3×109 mi) at a still very plausible distance of 1.5 kiloparsecs; a radius dwarfing other known red hypergiants.[43] However, this is probably larger than the actual size of the underlying star—this angular diameter estimate is heightened from interference by the envelope.[3][9][31] In 2006–07, radius between 1,800–2,100 R☉ has been derived from the preferring luminosity of 430,000 L☉ and the still-preferred temperature range of 3,450–3,535 kelvin.[9][31]
In contrast to prevailing opinion, a 2006 study, ignoring the effects of the circumstellar envelope in the observed flux of the star, derived a luminosity of 60,000 L☉, suggesting an initial mass of 15 M☉ and radius of 600 R☉ based on an assumed effective temperature of 3,650 K and distance of 1.5 kpc. On this basis they considered VY CMa and another notable extreme cool hypergiant star, NML Cygni, as normal early-type red supergiants.[4][56] They assert that earlier very high luminosities of 500,000 L☉ and very large radii of 2,800–3,230 R☉[14][57] (or even 4,000 R☉[20]) were based on effective temperatures below 3,000 K that were unreasonably low.[4]
Almost immediately another paper published a size estimate of 1,800–2,100 R☉ and concluded that VY CMa is a true hypergiant. This uses the later well-reviewed effective temperature 3450–3535 kelvin, and a luminosity of 430,000 L☉ based on SED integration and a distance of 1.5 kpc.[31]
In 2011,[d] the star was studied at near-infrared wavelengths using interferometry at the Very Large Telescope. The size of the star was published at its Rosseland Radius, outside of which optical depth falls below 2⁄3,[51] given the mean of two most modern, similar but distinct distances.[e][10][36] Its angular diameter was directly measured at 11.3±0.3 mas, thus radius of 1,420±120 R☉ given a distance of 1.17+0.08
−0.07 kpc. The high spectral resolution of these observations allowed the effects of contamination by circumstellar layers to be minimised. An effective temperature of 3,490±90 K, corresponding to a spectral class of M4, was then derived from the radius and a luminosity of 270,000±40,000 L☉ which is based on the distance and a measured flux of (6.3±0.3)×10−13 W/cm2.[3]
Most such radius estimates are considered as the size for the mean limit of the optical photosphere while the size of the star for the radio photosphere is calculated to be twice that.[5] Despite the mass and very large size (though some estimates give smaller sizes), VY CMa has an average density of 5.33 to 8.38 mg/m3 (0.00000533 to 0.00000838 kg/m3). It is over 100,000 times less dense than Earth's atmosphere at sea level (1.2 kg/m3).
In 2012, the size was calculated more accurately to be somewhat lower, for example 1,420 R☉,[3] which leaves larger sizes published and in-date for other galactic and extragalactic red supergiants (and hypergiants) such as Westerlund 1 W26 and WOH G64. Despite this, VY Canis Majoris is still often described as the largest known star, sometimes with caveats to account for the highly uncertain sizes of all these stars.[58][f] A 2013 estimate based on the Wittkowski radius and the Monnier radius put mean size at 2,000 R☉,[27] and later that year, Matsuura and others put forward a competing method of finding radius within the envelope, putting the star at 2,069 R☉, based on a cool-end of estimates adopted temperature of 2,800 K and a luminosity of 237,000 L☉.[52] However, these values are not consistent with its spectral types, leaving the 2012 values in better match.
Surroundings
VY Canis Majoris is surrounded by an extensive and dense asymmetric red
Evolution
VY Canis Majoris is a highly
The future evolution of VY CMa is uncertain, but like the most cool supergiants, the star will certainly explode as a supernova. It has begun to fuse helium into carbon en masse.[g] Like Betelgeuse, it is losing mass and is expected to explode as a supernova within the next 100,000 years — it will probably revert to a higher temperature beforehand.[3][58][60] The star is very unstable, having a prodigious mass loss such as in ejections.
VY Canis Majoris is a candidate for a star in a second red supergiant phase, but this is mostly speculative and unconfirmed.[61]
From this star CO emission is coincident with the bright KI shell in its asymmetric nebula.
The star will produce either:
- a moderately luminous and long-lasting type IIn supernova(SN IIn)
- a hypernova; or a
- superluminous supernova (SLSN) comparable to SN 1988Z
- or less likely, a .
The explosion could be associated with gamma-ray bursts (GRB), and it will produce a shock wave of a speed of a few thousand kilometers per second that could hit the surrounding envelope of material, causing strong emission for many years after the explosion. For a star so large, the remnant would be probably a black hole rather than a neutron star.[60]
Notes
- ^ The given stellar metallicity is given as the solar metallicity ([Fe/H] = approx. +0.0 dex).
- ^ on 7 March
- ^ Charles J. Lada and Mark J. Reid
- ^ On 6 and 7 March
- ^ 1.14+0.11
−0.09 and 1.20+0.13
−0.10 kpc, see above at Distance - ^ Alcolea et al 2013 refer to VY CMa as having the highest radius "among well-characterised stars in our galaxy", referring to the Wittkowski et al. 2012 value of 1,420 R☉ which is based on the distances from Choi et al. 2008 and Zhang et al. 2012 plus an angular diameter. Several red supergiants (or hypergiants) are possibly larger, although they could have less accurate radius estimates.
- ^ a main sequence star fuses hydrogen into helium.
References and footnotes
- ^ S2CID 18759600.
- ^ a b c d "GCVS Query=VY CMa". General Catalogue of Variable Stars @ Sternberg Astronomical Institute, Moscow, Russia. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
- ^ S2CID 54044968.
- ^ S2CID 14314968.
- ^ S2CID 14878122.
- ^ Bibcode:2002yCat.2237....0D.
- ^ doi:10.1086/180366.
- ^ a b c "VSX: Detail for VY CMa". American Association of Variable Star Observers. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
- ^ S2CID 119009102.
- ^ S2CID 121202336.
- S2CID 119044678.
- ^ S2CID 85459804.
- S2CID 210714093.
- ^ doi:10.1086/318748.
- ^ doi:10.1086/150688.
- ^ a b "Result for Sh-2 310". Galaxy Map. Archived from the original on 13 April 2009. Retrieved 20 August 2018.
- doi:10.1086/190049.
- ^ "Solar System Exploration: Planets: Sun: Facts & Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
- ^ Bibcode:1971IBVS..599....1R.
- ^ Bibcode:1998A&A...340L..39W.
- S2CID 29999031.
- doi:10.1086/180306.
- doi:10.1086/153517.
- ^ a b David Darling. "VY Canis Majoris". Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "VY Canis Majoris". American Association of Variable Star Observers. 13 April 2010.
- S2CID 56413042.
- ^ S2CID 59038056.
- .
- .
- ^ a b c d "Astronomers Map a Hypergiant Star's Massive Outbursts". HubbleSite. 8 January 2007. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ Bibcode:2006AAS...20910109G.
- ^ doi:10.1086/155758.
- Bibcode:1976BAAS....8R.322L.
- S2CID 11885068.
- Bibcode:1997A&A...323L..49P.
- ^ S2CID 15042252.
- .
- ^ "Download Data". aavso.org. AAVSO. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
- ^ S2CID 55162530.
- Bibcode:1996hst..prop.6416K.
- ^ doi:10.1086/127278.
- Bibcode:2014yCat....1.2023S.
- ^ S2CID 7851916.
- ^ Bibcode:1996A&A...314..896L.
- S2CID 119276502.
- doi:10.1086/191820.
- ^ S2CID 119281306.
- doi:10.1086/426565.
- S2CID 229188960
- S2CID 15109583.
- ^ Bibcode:1991A&A...246..374B.
- ^ S2CID 53393704.
- doi:10.1086/150224.
- doi:10.1086/191488.
- doi:10.1086/131948.
- S2CID 15766762.
- S2CID 14352419.
- ^ S2CID 55758451.
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- ^ S2CID 19019913.
- S2CID 125806208.
Further reading
- Kastner, Joel H.; Weintraub, David A. (1998). "Hubble Space Telescope Imaging of the Mass-losing Supergiant VY Canis Majoris". Astronomical Journal. 115 (4): 1592–1598. doi:10.1086/300297.
- Meynet, G; Chomienne, V; Ekström, S; Georgy, C; Granada, A; Groh, J; Maeder, A; Eggenberger, P; Levesque, E; Massey, P (2015). "Impact of mass-loss on the evolution and pre-supernova properties of red supergiants". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 575 (60): A60. S2CID 38736311.
- Scicluna, P; Siebenmorgen, R; Wesson, R; Blommaert, J. A. D. L; Kasper, M; Voshchinnikov, N. V; Wolf, S (2015). "Large dust grains in the wind of VY Canis Majoris". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 584: L10. S2CID 55163865.
- Wittkowski, M; Arroyo-Torres, B; Marcaide, J. M; Abellan, F. J; Chiavassa, A; Freytag, B; Scholz, M; Wood, P. R; Hauschildt, P. H; Meynet, Georges; Georgy, Cyril; Groh, José; Stee, Philippe (2015). "On the atmospheric structure and fundamental parameters of red supergiants". New Windows on Massive Stars. 307: 280–285. .
External links
- VLT image of the surroundings of VY Canis Majoris seen with SPHERE www.eso.org
- Astronomers Map a Hypergiant Star's Massive Outbursts, HubbleSiteNewsCenter, 2007-01-08
- "What is the Biggest Star in the Universe?", Fraser Cain, Universe Today, published 2008-04-06, updated 13 May 2013
- Amos, Jonathan (27 November 2009). "Herschel telescope 'fingerprints' colossal star". BBC News. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
The death throes of one of the biggest stars known to science have been spied by Europe's Herschel space telescope.
- Structure and Evolution of Stars. "Lecture 16: The IMF, Lithium Burning, P Cygni Profiles and Mass Loss" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2018.
- Remote Sensing Tutorial Page A-5 Archived 16 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine archive