Vaccination
Vaccinations | |
---|---|
ICD-9-CM | 99.3-99.5 |
Part of a series on |
Vaccination |
---|
Vaccination is the administration of a
The first disease people tried to prevent by
Vaccination and
Mechanism of function
Vaccines are a way of
Most vaccines are administered before a patient has contracted a disease to help increase future protection. However, some vaccines are administered after the patient already has contracted a disease. Vaccines given after exposure to smallpox are reported to offer some protection from disease or may reduce the severity of disease.
Most vaccines are given by injection as they are not absorbed reliably through the
A vaccine failure is when an organism contracts a disease in spite of being vaccinated against it. Primary vaccine failure occurs when an organism's immune system does not produce antibodies when first vaccinated. Vaccines can fail when several series are given and fail to produce an immune response. The term "vaccine failure" does not necessarily imply that the vaccine is defective. Most vaccine failures are simply due to individual variations in immune response.[28]
Vaccination versus inoculation
The term "inoculation" is often used interchangeably with "vaccination." However, while related, the terms are not synonymous. Vaccination is treatment of an individual with an attenuated (i.e. less virulent) pathogen or other immunogen, whereas inoculation, also called variolation in the context of smallpox prophylaxis, is treatment with unattenuated variola virus taken from a pustule or scab of a smallpox patient into the superficial layers of the skin, commonly the upper arm. Variolation was often done 'arm-to-arm' or, less effectively, 'scab-to-arm', and often caused the patient to become infected with smallpox, which in some cases resulted in severe disease.[29][30]
Vaccinations began in the late 18th century with the work of Edward Jenner and the smallpox vaccine.[31][32][33]
Preventing disease versus preventing infection
Some vaccines, like the smallpox vaccine, prevent infection. Their use results in
Safety
Vaccine development and approval
Just like any medication or procedure, no vaccine can be 100% safe or effective for everyone because each person's body can react differently.[35][36] While minor side effects, such as soreness or low grade fever, are relatively common, serious side effects are very rare and occur in about 1 out of every 100,000 vaccinations and typically involve allergic reactions that can cause hives or difficulty breathing.[37][38]
However, vaccines are the safest they ever have been in history and each vaccine undergoes rigorous clinical trials to ensure their safety and efficacy before approval by authorities such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[39]
Prior to human testing, vaccines are tested on cell cultures and the results modelled to assess how they will interact with the immune system.[37][39] During the next round of testing, researchers study vaccines in animals, including mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, and monkeys.[37] Vaccines that pass each of these stages of testing are then approved by the public health safety authority (FDA in the United States) to start a three-phase series of human testing, advancing to higher phases only if they are deemed safe and effective at the previous phase. The people in these trials participate voluntarily and are required to prove they understand the purpose of the study and the potential risks.[39]
During phase I trials, a vaccine is tested in a group of about 20 people with the primary goal of assessing the vaccine's safety.[37] Phase II trials expand the testing to include 50 to several hundred people. During this stage, the vaccine's safety continues to be evaluated and researchers also gather data on the effectiveness and the ideal dose of the vaccine.[37] Vaccines determined to be safe and efficacious then advance to phase III trials, which focuses on the efficacy of the vaccine in hundreds to thousands of volunteers. This phase can take several years to complete and researchers use this opportunity to compare the vaccinated volunteers to those who have not been vaccinated to highlight any true reactions to the vaccine that occur.[39]
If a vaccine passes all of the phases of testing, the manufacturer can then apply for license of the vaccine through the relevant regulatory authorities such as the FDA in US. Before regulatory authorities approve use in the general public, they extensively review the results of the clinical trials, safety tests, purity tests, and manufacturing methods and establish that the manufacturer itself is up to government standards in many other areas.[37][40]
After regulatory approval, the regulators continue to monitor the manufacturing protocols, batch purity, and the manufacturing facility itself. Additionally, vaccines also undergo phase IV trials, which monitor the safety and efficacy of vaccines in tens of thousands of people, or more, across many years.[37][40]
Side effects
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has compiled a list of vaccines and their possible side effects.[38] The risk of side effects varies between vaccines.
Notable vaccine investigations
In 1976 in the United States, a mass swine flu vaccination programme was discontinued after 362 cases of Guillain–Barré syndrome among 45 million vaccinated people. William Foege of the CDC estimated that the incidence of Guillain-Barré was four times higher in vaccinated people than in those not receiving the swine flu vaccine.
Pandemrix – a vaccine for the H1N1 pandemic of 2009 given to around 31 million people[36] – was found to have a higher level of adverse events than alternative vaccines resulting in legal action.[42] In a response to the narcolepsy reports following immunization with Pandemrix, the CDC carried out a population-based study and found the FDA-approved 2009 H1N1 flu shots were not associated with an increased risk for the neurological disorder.[43]
Ingredients
The ingredients of vaccines can vary greatly from one to the next and no two vaccines are the same. The CDC has compiled a list of vaccines and their ingredients that is readily accessible on their website.[44]
Aluminium
Mercury
Certain vaccines once contained a compound called
Thimerosal was used as a
Monitoring
CDC Immunization Safety Office initiatives[51]
Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS)[52] |Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER)[53] |Immunization Action Coalition (IAC)[54]
Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD)[55] |Health Resources and Service Administration (HRSA)[56] |Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP)[57]
Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) Project National Institutes of Health (NIH)[58]
National Vaccine Program Office (NVPO)[59]
The administration protocols, efficacy, and adverse events of vaccines are monitored by organizations of the US federal government, including the CDC and FDA, and independent agencies are constantly re-evaluating vaccine practices.[51][60] As with all medications, vaccine use is determined by public health research, surveillance, and reporting to governments and the public.[51][60]
Usage
The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that vaccination prevents 3.5–5 million deaths per year,[10] and up to 1.5 million children die each year due to diseases that could have been prevented by vaccination.[63] They estimate that 29% of deaths of children under five-years-old in 2013 were vaccine preventable. In other developing parts of the world, they are faced with the challenge of having a decreased availability of resources and vaccinations. Countries such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot afford to provide the full range of childhood vaccinations.[64]
United States
Vaccines have led to major decreases in the prevalence of infectious diseases in the United States. In 2007, studies regarding the effectiveness of vaccines on mortality or morbidity rates of those exposed to various diseases have shown almost 100% decreases in death rates, and about a 90% decrease in exposure rates.[65] This has allowed specific organizations and states to adopt standards for recommended early childhood vaccinations. Lower income families who are unable to otherwise afford vaccinations are supported by these organizations and specific government laws. The Vaccines for Children Program and the Social Security Act are two major players in supporting lower socioeconomic groups.[66][67]
In 2000, the CDC declared that measles had been eliminated in the US (defined as no disease transmission for 12 continuous months).
History
Before the first vaccinations, in the sense of using cowpox to inoculate people against smallpox, people have been inoculated in China and elsewhere, before being copied in the west, by using smallpox, called variolation. The earliest hints of the practice of variolation for smallpox in China come during the 10th century.[70] The Chinese also practiced the oldest documented use of variolation, which comes from Wan Quan's (1499–1582) Douzhen Xinfa (痘疹心法) of 1549. They implemented a method of "nasal insufflation" administered by blowing powdered smallpox material, usually scabs, up the nostrils. Various insufflation techniques have been recorded throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries within China.[71]: 60 Two reports on the Chinese practice of inoculation were received by the Royal Society in London in 1700; one by Martin Lister who received a report by an employee of the East India Company stationed in China and another by Clopton Havers.[72] In France, Voltaire reports that the Chinese have practiced variolation "these hundred years".
In 1796,
In 1802, the
The
In 1974 the WHO adopted the goal of universal vaccination by 1990 to protect children against six preventable infectious diseases:
In 2000, the
UNICEF has reported on the extent to which children missed out on vaccinations from 2020 onwards due to the COVID-19 pandemic. By summer 2023, the organisation described vaccination programs as getting "back on track".[85]
Vaccination policy
To eliminate the risk of outbreaks of some diseases, at various times governments and other institutions have employed policies requiring vaccination for all people. For example, an 1853 law required universal vaccination against smallpox in England and Wales, with fines levied on people who did not comply.[86] Common contemporary U.S. vaccination policies require that children receive recommended vaccinations before entering public school.[87]
Beginning with early vaccination in the nineteenth century, these policies were resisted by a variety of groups, collectively called
In countries with limited financial resources, limited vaccination coverage results in greater morbidity and mortality due to infectious disease.[91] More affluent countries are able to subsidize vaccinations for at-risk groups, resulting in more comprehensive and effective coverage. In Australia, for example, the Government subsidizes vaccinations for seniors and indigenous Australians.[92]
Public Health Law Research, an independent US based organization, reported in 2009 that there is insufficient evidence to assess the effectiveness of requiring vaccinations as a condition for specified jobs as a means of reducing incidence of specific diseases among particularly vulnerable populations;[93] that there is sufficient evidence supporting the effectiveness of requiring vaccinations as a condition for attending child care facilities and schools;[94] and that there is strong evidence supporting the effectiveness of standing orders, which allow healthcare workers without prescription authority to administer vaccine as a public health intervention.[95]
Fractional dose vaccination
Fractional dose vaccination reduces the dose of a vaccine to allow more individuals to be vaccinated with a given vaccine stock, trading societal benefit for individual protection. Based on the nonlinearity properties of many vaccines, it is effective in poverty diseases[96] and promises benefits in pandemic waves, e.g. in COVID-19,[97] when vaccine supply is limited.
Litigation
Allegations of vaccine injuries in recent decades have appeared in litigation in the U.S. Some families have won substantial awards from sympathetic juries, even though most public health officials have said that the claims of injuries were unfounded.[98] In response, several vaccine makers stopped production, which the US government believed could be a threat to public health, so laws were passed to shield manufacturers from liabilities stemming from vaccine injury claims.[98] The safety and side effects of multiple vaccines have been tested to uphold the viability of vaccines as a barrier against disease. The influenza vaccine was tested in controlled trials and proven to have negligible side effects equal to that of a placebo.[99] Some concerns from families might have arisen from social beliefs and norms that cause them to mistrust or refuse vaccinations, contributing to this discrepancy in side effects that were unfounded.[100]
Opposition
Opposition to vaccination, from a wide array of vaccine critics, has existed since the earliest vaccination campaigns.
Various disputes have arisen over the morality, ethics,
Many parents do not vaccinate their children because they feel that diseases are no longer present due to vaccination.[113] This is a false assumption, since diseases held in check by immunization programs can and do still return if immunization is dropped. These pathogens could possibly infect vaccinated people, due to the pathogen's ability to mutate when it is able to live in unvaccinated hosts.[114][115]
Vaccination and autism
The notion of a connection between vaccines and autism originated in a 1998 paper published in The Lancet whose lead author was the physician Andrew Wakefield. His study concluded that eight of the 12 patients, ages 3 years to 10 years, developed behavioral symptoms consistent with autism following the MMR vaccine (an immunization against measles, mumps, and rubella).[116] The article was widely criticized for lack of scientific rigor and it was proven that Wakefield falsified data in the article.[116] In 2004, 10 of the original 12 co-authors (not including Wakefield) published a retraction of the article and stated the following: "We wish to make it clear that in this paper no causal link was established between MMR vaccine and autism as the data were insufficient."[117] In 2010, The Lancet officially retracted the article, stating that several elements of the article were incorrect, including falsified data and protocols. The article has sparked a much greater anti-vaccination movement, particularly in the United States, and even though the article was shown to be fraudulent and was heavily retracted, one in four parents still believe that vaccines can cause autism.[118]
To date, all validated and definitive studies have shown that there is no correlation between vaccines and autism.[119] One of the studies published in 2015 confirms there is no link between autism and the MMR vaccine. Infants were given a health plan, that included an MMR vaccine, and were continuously studied until they reached five years old. There was no link between the vaccine and children who had a normally developed sibling or a sibling that had autism making them a higher risk for developing autism themselves.[120]
It can be difficult to correct the memory of humans when wrong information is received prior to correct information. Even though there is much evidence to go against the Wakefield study and retractions were published by most of the co-authors, many people continue to believe and base decisions on the study as it still lingers in their memory. Studies and research are being conducted to determine effective ways to correct
Routes of administration
A vaccine administration may be oral, by injection (intramuscular, intradermal, subcutaneous), by puncture, transdermal or intranasal.[122] Several recent clinical trials have aimed to deliver the vaccines via mucosal surfaces to be up-taken by the common mucosal immunity system, thus avoiding the need for injections.[123]
Economics of vaccination
Health is often used as one of the metrics for determining the economic prosperity of a country. This is because healthier individuals are generally better suited to contributing to the economic development of a country than the sick.[124] There are many reasons for this. For instance, a person who is vaccinated for influenza not only protects themselves from the risk of influenza, but simultaneously also prevents themselves from infecting those around them.[125] This leads to a healthier society, which allows individuals to be more economically productive. Children are consequently able to attend school more often and have been shown to do better academically. Similarly, adults are able to work more often, more efficiently, and more effectively.[124][126]
Costs and benefits
On the whole, vaccinations induce a net benefit to society. Vaccines are often noted for their high Return on investment (ROI) values, especially when considering the long-term effects.[127] Some vaccines have much higher ROI values than others. Studies have shown that the ratios of vaccination benefits to costs can differ substantially—from 27:1 for diphtheria/pertussis, to 13.5:1 for measles, 4.76:1 for varicella, and 0.68–1.1 : 1 for pneumococcal conjugate.[125] Some governments choose to subsidize the costs of vaccines, due to some of the high ROI values attributed to vaccinations. The United States subsidizes over half of all vaccines for children, which costs between $400 and $600 each. Although most children do get vaccinated, the adult population of the US is still below the recommended immunization levels. Many factors can be attributed to this issue. Many adults who have other health conditions are unable to be safely immunized, whereas others opt not to be immunized for the sake of private financial benefits. Many Americans are underinsured, and, as such, are required to pay for vaccines out-of-pocket. Others are responsible for paying high deductibles and co-pays. Although vaccinations usually induce long-term economic benefits, many governments struggle to pay the high short-term costs associated with labor and production. Consequently, many countries neglect to provide such services.[125]
According to a 2021 paper, vaccinations against haemophilus influenzae type b, hepatitis B, human papillomavirus, Japanese encephalitis, measles, neisseria meningitidis serogroup A, rotavirus, rubella, streptococcus pneumoniae, and yellow fever have prevented an estimated 50 million deaths from 2000 to 2019.[128] The paper "represents the largest assessment of vaccine impact before COVID-19-related disruptions".[128] According to a June 2022 study, COVID‑19 vaccinations prevented an additional 14.4 to 19.8 million deaths in 185 countries and territories from 8 December 2020 to 8 December 2021.[129][130]
They estimated that it would cost between $2.8 billion and $3.7 billion to develop at least one vaccine for each of them. This should be set against the potential cost of an outbreak. The 2003 SARS outbreak in East Asia cost $54 billion.[131]
Game theory uses utility functions to model costs and benefits, which may include financial and non-financial costs and benefits. In recent years, it has been argued that game theory can effectively be used to model vaccine uptake in societies. Researchers have used game theory for this purpose to analyse vaccination uptake in the context of diseases such as influenza and measles.[132]
Gallery
-
Dr Jenner performing his first vaccination on James Phipps, a boy of age 8. 14 May 1796. Painting by Ernest Board (early 20th century)
-
James Gillray's The Cow-Pock—or—the Wonderful Effects of the New Inoculation!, an 1802 caricature of vaccinated patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages
-
La vaccine or Le préjugé vaincu by Louis-Léopold Boilly, 1807
-
A doctor vaccinating a small girl, other girls with loosened blouses wait their turn apprehensively by Lance Calkin
-
German caricature showing von Behring extracting the serum with a tap
-
Les Malheurs de la Vaccine (The history of vaccination seen from an economic point of view: A pharmacy up for sale; an outmoded inoculist selling his premises; Jenner, to the left, pursues a skeleton with a lancet)
See also
- Antitoxin
- Correlates of immunity
- COVID-19 vaccine
- DNA vaccination
- Feline vaccination
- H5N1 clinical trials
- Immunization during pregnancy
- List of vaccine topics
- Misinformation related to vaccination
- Vaccination and religion
- Vaccination of dogs
- Vaccinator
- Vaccine trial
- World Immunization Week
References
- ^ "Herd immunity (Herd protection) | Vaccine Knowledge". vk.ovg.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2 August 2019. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
- S2CID 33549265.
- PMID 19515467.
- PMID 19606157.
- ^ A CDC framework for preventing infectious diseases (PDF). United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. October 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 September 2012.
Vaccines are our most effective and cost-saving tools for disease prevention, preventing untold suffering and saving tens of thousands of lives and billions of dollars in healthcare costs each year
- ^ Gellin B (1 June 2000). "Vaccines and Infectious Diseases: Putting Risk into Perspective". American Medical Association Briefing on Microbial Threats. National Press Club Washington, DC. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010.
Vaccines are the most effective public health tool ever created.
- ^ "Vaccine-preventable diseases". Public Health Agency of Canada. 7 October 2002. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012.
Vaccines still provide the most effective, longest-lasting method of preventing infectious diseases in all age groups
- ^ "NIAID Biodefense Research Agenda for Category B and C Priority Pathogens" (PDF). United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
Vaccines are the most effective method of protecting the public against infectious diseases.
- PMID 26978210.
- ^ a b "Vaccines and immunization". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
- ^ Williams 2010, p. 60.
- ^ S2CID 6688481.
- PMID 6319980.
- ^ PMID 17338405. Archived from the originalon 15 February 2008. Retrieved 12 March 2008.
- PMID 16200144.
- ISBN 978-0-520-24220-3.
- ^ "UC Davis Magazine, Summer 2006: Epidemics on the Horizon". Archived from the original on 11 December 2008. Retrieved 3 January 2008.
- ^ "How Poxviruses Such As Smallpox Evade The Immune System". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 17 October 2023.
- ^ McNeil DG (26 April 2019). "Religious Objections to the Measles Vaccine? Get the Shots, Faith Leaders Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2019.
- from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
- PMID 28159876.
- ^ "Vaccine Overview" (PDF). Smallpox Fact Sheet. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 2 January 2008.
- PMID 20300058.
- PMID 17963823.
- PMID 15732525.
- PMID 24150416.
- ^ "Immunity Types". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 22 December 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
- PMID 26836329.
- ^ "The Smallpox Epidemic of 1862 (Victoria BC)--Doctors and Diagnosis". web.uvic.ca. Archived from the original on 2 February 2018. Retrieved 29 September 2016.
- ^ "Doctors and diagnosis The difference between Vaccination and Inoculation". Web.uvic.ca. Archived from the original on 2 February 2018. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
- ^ "Edward Jenner – (1749–1823)". Sundaytimes.lk. 1 June 2008. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- ^ "History – Edward Jenner (1749–1823)". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
- ^ "Edward Jenner – Smallpox and the Discovery of Vaccination". dinweb.org. Archived from the original on 27 August 2010. Retrieved 22 April 2010.
- ^ Caddy, Sarah L. (5 January 2021). "Coronavirus: few vaccines prevent infection – here's why that's not a problem". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2022.
- ^ "History of Vaccine Safety History Ensuring Safety Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 10 January 2019. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ S2CID 13364842.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Making Safe Vaccines NIH: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases". www.niaid.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ a b "Vaccines: Vac-Gen/Side Effects". www.cdc.gov. 12 July 2018. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ a b c d "Ensuring Vaccine Safety Ensuring Safety Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 12 December 2018. Archived from the original on 12 March 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
- ^ a b "How are vaccines developed? WHO". www.who.int. 8 December 2020. Archived from the original on 26 October 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2023.
- from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 23 September 2021.
- S2CID 52308748.
- ^ "Narcolepsy Following Pandemrix in Europe". www.cdc.gov. 20 August 2020. Archived from the original on 27 June 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
- ^ "Vaccines: Vac-Gen/Additives in Vaccines Fact Sheet". www.cdc.gov. 12 July 2018. Archived from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
- ^ a b "Adjuvants help vaccines work better. Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 23 January 2019. Archived from the original on 15 March 2019. Retrieved 15 March 2019.
- PMID 14871632.
- PMID 22001122.
- ^ a b c d "Thimerosal in Vaccines Thimerosal Concerns Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 24 January 2019. Archived from the original on 17 August 2011. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
- PMID 11331700.
- ^ "Vaccine Safety & Availability - Thimerosal and Vaccines". www.fda.gov. Archived from the original on 6 January 2013. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
- ^ a b c "Vaccine Safety Monitoring Monitoring Ensuring Safety Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 12 December 2018. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS)". vaers.hhs.gov. Archived from the original on 17 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "About the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER)". www.fda.gov. 7 February 2019. Archived from the original on 9 May 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "Immunization Action Coalition (IAC): Vaccine Information for Health Care Professionals". www.immunize.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "Vaccine Safety Datalink (VSD) VSD Monitoring Ensuring Safety Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 10 January 2019. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "Official web site of the U.S. Health Resources & Services Administration". www.hrsa.gov. Archived from the original on 23 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "Home". Institute For Safe Medication Practices. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "National Institutes of Health (NIH)". National Institutes of Health (NIH). Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ "National Vaccine Program Office (NVPO)". HHS.gov. 30 March 2016. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
- ^ a b "Vaccine safety, surveillance and reporting". Government of Canada. 22 April 2014. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ "Share of children who receive key vaccines in target populations". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ^ "Global vaccination coverage". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 3 July 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
- ^ "Global Immunization Data" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
- PMID 12531324.
- PMID 18000199.
- ^ "Vaccines for Children Program (VFC)". CDC. 2 April 2019. Archived from the original on 1 May 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
- ^ "Program for Distribution of Pediatric Vaccines". Social Security. U.S. Government. Archived from the original on 30 October 2019. Retrieved 8 December 2019.
- ^ "Measles | History of Measles | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 25 February 2019. Archived from the original on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
- ^ "Measles | Cases and Outbreaks | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 24 March 2019. Archived from the original on 13 February 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
- ISBN 9780521632621.
- ISBN 978-0-230-27471-6.
- ISBN 9780080919461.
- PMID 9831677.
- ^ Dunning R (1800). "Some observations on vaccination, or, The inoculated cow-pox; Some observations on vaccination; Inoculated cow-pox; Observations, & c; Observations, &c". Contagion – CURIOSity Digital Collections. March and Teape. Archived from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
- ^ Sethu, Divya (16 March 2021). "How 3 Mysore Queens Became The Face Of A Campaign For The World's First Vaccine". The Better India. Archived from the original on 22 March 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
- ^ "An Indian Queen's "Vaccine Selfie" in Oils". www.gavi.org. Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
- ^ "The Indian queens who modelled for the world's first vaccine". BBC News. 19 September 2020. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-520-26836-4.
- ^ ISBN 9780521765671.
- ^ "Exhibition tells story of Spanish children used as vaccine fridges in 1803". the Guardian. 27 July 2021. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 31 July 2021.
- ^ "Prvo vakcinisanje u Kragujevcu". Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
- ^ ISBN 9781580460361.
- ^ ISBN 9780275995058.
- PMID 31908857.
- ^ UNICEF UK, Child Matters, Summer 2023, pp. 10-11
- ^ Brunton D (2008). The Politics of Vaccination: Practice and Policy in England, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, 1800–1874. University of Rochester Press. p. 39.
- ^ "State Vaccination Requirements". CDC. 11 March 2019. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
- .
- ^ PMID 12193361.
- S2CID 19344405.
- PMID 19828053.
- ^ "Time to think about vaccinations again?". Medicines Talk (No. 32 Summer 2009). Sydney, Australia: NPS MedicineWise. 1 February 2010. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.
- ^ "Laws and Policies Requiring Specified Vaccinations among High Risk Populations". Public Health Law Research. 7 December 2009. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
- ^ "Vaccination Requirements for Child Care, School and College Attendance". Public Health Law Research. 12 July 2009. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
- ^ "Standing Orders for Vaccination". Public Health Law Research. 12 July 2009. Archived from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2014.
- from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
- from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
- ^ PMID 17898095.
- PMID 8687262.
- PMID 24523276.
- PMID 27658738.
- S2CID 40669829.
- PMID 21543527.
- PMID 22531966.
- ^ Science Mom, Catherina (9 May 2011). "Infant mortality and vaccines". Just The Vax. Blogspot.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
- from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-903933-92-3.
- S2CID 29738930.
- S2CID 5353949.
- PMID 19478850.
- ^ "Retracted autism study an 'elaborate fraud,' British journal finds". CNN.com. 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2013.
- PMID 26978210.
- ^ "WHO – World Immunization Week 2012". who.int. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013.
- ^ Inglis-Arkell E (January 2014). "Why anti-vaxxers might be creating a world of more dangerous viruses". io9. Archived from the original on 13 July 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
- ^ "Pertussis and Other Diseases Could Return If Vaccination Rates Lag". ContagionLive. Archived from the original on 26 March 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
- ^ from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 5 February 2012. (Retracted)
- S2CID 5128036.
- PMID 21870438.
- ^ "Vaccines Do Not Cause Autism Concerns Vaccine Safety CDC". www.cdc.gov. 6 February 2019. Archived from the original on 16 March 2017. Retrieved 22 March 2019.
- PMID 25898051.
- PMID 28749996.
- ISBN 978-3-540-29382-8.
- PMID 22380827.
- ^ PMID 27123174.
- ^ from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
- ^ "The Economic Side of Vaccines' Positive Externalities". Econlife. 24 February 2015. Archived from the original on 8 September 2018. Retrieved 7 September 2018.
- PMID 27123171.
- ^ PMID 34253291.
- PMID 35753318.
- ^ "COVID-19 vaccines saved nearly 20 million lives in a year, study says". CBS News. 24 June 2022. Archived from the original on 29 June 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
- ^ "Scientists have estimated the cost of stopping 11 diseases that could kill millions in a pandemic". Vox. 22 October 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
- S2CID 58004680.
Further reading
- Carroll AE (17 September 2015). "Not Up for Debate: The Science Behind Vaccination". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
- Cole JP, Swendiman KS (21 May 2014). "Mandatory Vaccinations: Precedent and Current Laws" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2021. Retrieved 31 January 2020.
- Largent MA (2012). Vaccine: The Debate in Modern America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0607-7.
- Offit, Paul A. (12 June 2007). Vaccinated. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-122795-0.
- Williams G (2010). Angel of Death. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230274716.
- Walloch KL (2015). The Antivaccine Heresy: Jacobson v. Massachusetts and the Troubled History of Compulsory Vaccination in the United States. University of Rochester Press. p. xii.
External links
- U.S. government Vaccine Research Center: Information regarding preventive vaccine research studies
- The Vaccine Page links to resources in many countries.
- "The complete routine immunisation schedule from summer 2014". Published by the UK Department of Health. (PDF)
- National Immunization Program, US Centers for Disease Control
- "Vaccine Safety" – US Centers for Disease Control
- "Vaccines Timeline" – Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Immunize.org – Immunization Action Coalition' (nonprofit working to increase immunization rates)
- WHO.int – 'Immunizations, vaccines and biologicals: Towards a World free of Vaccine Preventable Diseases', World Health Organization (WHO's global vaccination campaign website)
- Health-EU Portal Vaccinations in the EU
- History of Vaccines Medical education site from the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, the oldest medical professional society in the US
- Images of vaccine-preventable diseases
- Immunisation, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Nadja Durbach, Chris Dye & Sanjoy Bhattacharya (In Our Time, 20 April 2006)