Thermobaric weapon
A thermobaric weapon, also called an aerosol bomb, or a vacuum bomb,[1] is a type of explosive munition that works by dispersing an aerosol cloud of gas, liquid or powdered explosive.[2][3] The fuel is often elemental, rather than a mix of multiple materials.[4] Many types of thermobaric weapons can be fitted to hand-held launchers,[5][6] and can also be launched from airplanes.
Terminology
The term thermobaric is derived from the Greek words for 'heat' and 'pressure': thermobarikos (θερμοβαρικός), from thermos (θερμός) 'hot' + baros (βάρος) 'weight, pressure' + suffix -ikos (-ικός) '-ic'.
Other terms used for the family of weapons are high-impulse thermobaric weapons, heat and pressure weapons, vacuum bombs, and fuel-air explosives (FAE).
Mechanism
-
Experimental setup
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Finely-ground flour is dispersed
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Cloud of flour is ignited
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Fireball spreads rapidly
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Intenseradiant heathas nothing to ignite here
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Fireball and superheated gases rise
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Aftermath of explosion, with unburned flour on the ground
Most
The initial explosive charge detonates as it hits its target, opening the container and dispersing the fuel mixture as a cloud.[10] The typical blast wave of a thermobaric weapon lasts significantly longer than that of a conventional explosive.
In contrast to an explosive that uses
Thermobaric explosives apply the principles underlying accidental unconfined vapor cloud explosions, which include those from dispersions of flammable dusts and droplets.
A typical weapon consists of a container packed with a fuel substance, the center of which has a small conventional-explosive "scatter charge". Fuels are chosen on the basis of the exothermicity of their oxidation, ranging from powdered metals, such as aluminum or magnesium, to organic materials, possibly with a self-contained partial oxidant.[14] The most recent development involves the use of nanofuels.[15][16]
A thermobaric bomb's effective yield depends on a combination of a number of factors such as how well the fuel is dispersed, how rapidly it mixes with the surrounding atmosphere and the initiation of the igniter and its position relative to the container of fuel. In some designs, strong munitions cases allow the blast pressure to be contained long enough for the fuel to be heated well above its autoignition temperature so that once the container bursts, the superheated fuel autoignites progressively as it comes into contact with atmospheric oxygen.[17] Conventional upper and lower limits of flammability apply to such weapons. Close in, blast from the dispersal charge, compressing and heating the surrounding atmosphere, has some influence on the lower limit. The upper limit has been demonstrated to influence the ignition of fogs above pools of oil strongly.[18] That weakness may be eliminated by designs in which the fuel is preheated well above its ignition temperature so that its cooling during its dispersion still results in a minimal ignition delay on mixing. The continual combustion of the outer layer of fuel molecules, as they come into contact with the air, generates added heat which maintains the temperature of the interior of the fireball, and thus sustains the detonation.[19]
In confinement, a series of reflective shock waves is generated,[20][21] which maintain the fireball and can extend its duration to between 10 and 50 ms as exothermic recombination reactions occur.[22] Further damage can result as the gases cool and pressure drops sharply, leading to a partial vacuum. This rarefaction effect has given rise to the misnomer "vacuum bomb". Piston-type afterburning[clarification needed] is also believed to occur in such structures, as flame-fronts accelerate through it.[23]
Fuel–air explosive
A fuel–air explosive (FAE) device consists of a container of fuel and two separate explosive charges. After the munition is dropped or fired, the first explosive charge bursts open the container at a predetermined height and disperses the fuel (and possibly
Effects
Conventional countermeasures such as barriers (sandbags) and personnel armour are not effective against thermobaric weapons.[24] A Human Rights Watch report of 1 February 2000[25] quotes a study made by the US Defense Intelligence Agency:
The [blast] kill mechanism against living targets is unique—and unpleasant. ... What kills is the
chemical agents.
According to a US Central Intelligence Agency study,[25]
the effect of an FAE explosion within confined spaces is immense. Those near the ignition point are obliterated. Those at the fringe are likely to suffer many
blindness.
Another Defense Intelligence Agency document speculates that, because the "shock and pressure waves cause minimal damage to
Development
German
The first attempts occurred during the
United States
FAEs were developed by the United States for use in the Vietnam War.[30] The CBU-55 FAE fuel-air cluster bomb was mostly developed by the US Naval Weapons Center at China Lake, California.[31]
Current American FAE munitions include the following:
- BLU-73 FAE I
- BLU-95 500 lb (230 kg) (FAE-II)
- BLU-96 2,000 lb (910 kg) (FAE-II)
- CBU-72 FAE I
- AGM-114 Hellfire missile
- XM1060 grenade
- SMAW-NE round for rocket launcher
The XM1060 40-mm grenade is a small-arms thermobaric device, which was fielded by US forces in Afghanistan in 2002, and proved to be popular against targets in enclosed spaces, such as caves.
Soviet, later Russian
Following FAEs developed by the United States for use in the
The RPO-A and upgraded RPO-M are infantry-portable
Other examples include the
Many
In September 2007, Russia exploded the largest thermobaric weapon ever made, and claimed that its yield was equivalent to that of a nuclear weapon.
Iraq
Iraq was alleged to possess the technology as early as 1990.[54]
Israel
Israel was alleged to possess thermobaric technology as early as 1990, according to Pentagon sources.[54]
Spain
In 1983, a program of military research was launched with collaboration between the Spanish Ministry of Defence (Directorate General of Armament and Material, DGAM) and Explosivos Alaveses (EXPAL) which was a subsidiary of Unión Explosivos Río Tinto (ERT). The goal of the programme was to develop a thermobaric bomb, the BEAC (Bomba Explosiva de Aire-Combustible).[54] A prototype was tested successfully in a foreign location out of safety and confidentiality concerns.[55] The Spanish Air and Space Force has an undetermined number of BEACs in its inventory.[56]
People's Republic of China
In 1996, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) began development of the PF-97 , a portable thermobaric rocket launcher, based on the Soviet RPO-A Shmel. Introduced in 2000 it is reported to weigh 3.5 kg and contains 2.1 kg of thermobaric filler. An improved version called the PF-97A was introduced in 2008.[57]
China is reported to have other thermobaric weapons, including bombs, grenades and rockets.[58] Research continues on thermobaric weapons capable of reaching 2,500 degrees.[59][dubious ]
Brazil
In 2004, under request of EMAER (Estado Maior da Aeronáutica - Military Staff of Aeronautics) and DIRMAB (Diretoria de Material Aeronáutico e Bélico - Board of Aeronautical and Military Equipment) the IAE (Instituto de Aeronautica e Espaço - Institute of Aeronautics and Space) started developing a Thermobaric project called Trocano .
Trocano (tɾoˈkɐnu) is a thermobaric weapon similar in design to the United States'
United Kingdom
In 2009, the British Ministry of Defence (MoD) acknowledged that Army Air Corps (AAC) AgustaWestland Apaches had used AGM-114 Hellfire missiles purchased from the United States against Taliban forces in Afghanistan. The MoD stated that 20 missiles, described as "blast fragmentation warheads", were used in 2008 and a further 20 in 2009. MoD officials told Guardian journalist Richard Norton-Taylor that the missiles were "particularly designed to take down structures and kill everyone in the buildings", as AAC AgustaWestland Apaches were previously equipped with weapon systems deemed ineffective to combat the Taliban. The MoD also stated that "British pilots' rules of engagement were strict and everything a pilot sees from the cockpit is recorded."[61]
In 2018, the MoD accidentally divulged the details of General Atomics MQ-9 Reapers utilised by the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Syrian civil war, which revealed that the drones were equipped with AGM-114 Hellfire missiles. The MoD had sent a report to a British publication, Drone Wars, in response to a freedom of information request.[62] In the report, it was stated that AGM-114N Hellfire missiles which contained a thermobaric warhead were used by RAF attack drones in Syria.[63][64]
India
Based on the high-explosive squash head (HESH) round, a 120 mm thermobaric round was developed in the 2010s by the Indian Ministry of Defence. This HESH round packs thermobaric explosives into the tank shells to increase the effectiveness against enemy bunkers and light armoured vehicles.[65]
The design and the development of the round was taken up by
Serbia
The company Balkan Novoteh, formed in 2011, provides the Thermobaric hand grenade TG-1 to the market.[68]
Ukraine
In 2017
History
Attempted prohibitions
Mexico, Switzerland and Sweden presented in 1980 a joint motion to the United Nations to prohibit the use of thermobaric weapons, to no avail.[54]
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research categorizes these weapons as "enhanced blast weapons" and there was pressure to regulate these around 2010, again to no avail.[72]
Military use
United States
FAEs such as first-generation
The
The AGM-114N Hellfire II was first used by US forces in 2003 in Iraq.[76]
Soviet Union
FAEs were reportedly used against China in the 1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict.[77][28]
The
Russia
Russian military forces reportedly used ground-delivered thermobaric weapons during the
It was thought that, during the September
During the
United Kingdom
During the War in Afghanistan, British forces, including the Army Air Corps and Royal Air Force, used thermobaric AGM-114N Hellfire missiles against the Taliban.[61] In the Syrian civil war, British military drones also used AGM-114N Hellfire missiles; in the first three months of 2018, British drones fired 92 Hellfire missiles in Syria.[91]
Israel
A report by Human Rights Watch claimed Israel has used thermobaric weaponry in the past including the 2008-2009 conflict in Gaza. Moreover, Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor states that Israel appears to be using thermobaric weaponry in the current
Syria
Reports by the rebel fighters of the
The Russia and Syrian governments have used thermobaric bombs and other thermobaric munitions during the
Ukraine
In March 2023 soldiers from the
Non-state actor use
Thermobaric and fuel–air explosives have been used in
Jemaah Islamiyah bombers used a shock-dispersed solid fuel charge,[105] based on the thermobaric principle,[106] to attack the Sari nightclub during the 2002 Bali bombings.[107]
In 2023, an Israeli reporter accused
Hamas and other Palestinian militant groups such as the Palestinian Islamic Jihad has claimed multiple attacks against Israeli forces with thermobaric rockets during the 2023 Israeli ground operation in the Gaza.[110][111]
International law
International law does not prohibit the use of thermobaric munitions, fuel-air explosive devices, or vacuum bombs against military targets.[112][28] As of March 2024[update], all past attempts to regulate or restrict thermobaric weapons have failed.[113][28]
According to some scholars, thermobaric weapons are not intrinsically indiscriminate by nature, as they are often engineered for precision targeting capabilities. This precision aspect serves to provide humanitarian advantages by potentially minimizing collateral damage and also lessens the amount of munitions needed to effectively engage with the chosen military goals. Nonetheless, authors holding this view recommend that the use of thermobaric weapons in populated areas should be minimized due to their wide-area impact and multiple harm mechanisms.[114]
In media
In the 1995 film Outbreak, a thermobaric weapon (referred to as a fuel air bomb) is used to destroy an African village to keep the perfect biological weapon (a virus) a secret, and later nearly used to wipe out a US town to keep the original virus intact.
See also
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External links
- Media related to Thermobaric weapons at Wikimedia Commons