Valens
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Valens | |
---|---|
Valentinianic | |
Father | Gratianus Funarius |
Religion | Semi-Arianism[8][9] |
Valens[c] (Greek: Ουάλης, translit. Ouálēs; 328 – 9 August 378) was Roman emperor from 364 to 378. Following a largely unremarkable military career, he was named co-emperor by his elder brother Valentinian I, who gave him the eastern half of the Roman Empire to rule. In 378, Valens was defeated and killed at the Battle of Adrianople against the invading Goths, which astonished contemporaries and marked the beginning of barbarian encroachment into Roman territory.
As emperor, Valens continually faced threats both internal and external.
Although Valens is described as indecisive, impressionable, a mediocre general and overall "utterly undistinguished", he was nonetheless a conscientious and capable administrator,
Early life and military career
Valens and his brother
Julian was killed in battle against the
Valentinian appointed his brother Valens tribunus stabulorum (or stabuli) on 1 March 364.
Reign
Both emperors were briefly ill, delaying them in Constantinople.
In the summer of 365, the 365 Crete earthquake and ensuing tsunami caused destruction around the Eastern Mediterranean.[32]
The empire had recently retreated from most of its holdings in Mesopotamia and Armenia, because of a treaty that Jovian had made with Shapur II of the Sasanian Empire. Valens's first priority after the winter of 365 was to move east in hopes of shoring up the situation.[citation needed]
Usurpation of Procopius (365–366)
Recent tax increases,
News of the revolt reached Valens at Caesarea in Cappadocia (
Having reappointed Salutius, Valens dispatched more troops under veteran generals,
First Gothic War: 367–369
During Procopius's insurrection, the
In spring 367, Valens crossed the Danube and attacked the
Fortunately for the Goths, Valens expected a new war with the
Persian War: 373
As mentioned before, among Valens' reasons for contracting a hasty and not entirely favorable peace in 369 was the deteriorating state of affairs in the East. Jovian had surrendered Rome's much disputed claim to control over Armenia in 363, and Shapur II was eager to make good on this new opportunity. The Persian emperor began enticing Armenian lords over to his camp and eventually forced the defection of the Arsacid Armenian king, Arshak II (Arsaces II), whom he quickly arrested and incarcerated. The Armenian nobility responded by asking Valens to return Arshak's son, Pap.[50] Valens agreed and sent Pap back to Armenia, but as these events took place during the war with the Goths he could not support him militarily.[50]
In response to the return of Pap, Shapur personally led an invasion force to seize control of Armenia.
In the summer following his Gothic settlement, Valens sent his invasion on his eastern frontier.
Meanwhile, troubles broke out with the boy-king Pap, who purportedly had the Armenian patriarch
None of this sat well with the Persians, who began agitating again for compliance with the 363 treaty. As the eastern frontier heated up in 375, Valens began preparations for a major expedition. Meanwhile, trouble was brewing elsewhere. In
Later reign: 373–376
Valens became the senior augustus when his older brother Valentinian died suddenly at Brigetio (Szőny) on 17 November 375 while on campaign against the Quadi in Pannonia.[54][55] Though Valentinian’s elder son Gratian had been co-emperor since 367,[56][57] the army on the Danube proclaimed Valentinian’s younger son Valentinian II augustus at Aquincum (Budapest), without consulting either emperor.[58][54]
Second Gothic War: 376–378
Migrations of the Huns began to displace the Goths, who sought Roman protection.[17] Valens allowed the Goths led by Fritigern to cross the Danube, but the Gothic settlers were abused by Roman officials and revolted in 377, seeking help from the Huns and the Alans and beginning the Gothic War (376–382).[17]
Valens returned from the east to campaign against the Goths.[17] He asked for assistance from his nephew and co-emperor Gratian against the Goths in Thrace, and Gratian set out eastwards, though Valens did not wait for the western armies to arrive before taking the offensive.[17][55]
Valens' plans for an eastern campaign were never realized. A transfer of troops to the Western Empire in 374 had left gaps in Valens' mobile forces. In preparation for an eastern war, Valens initiated an ambitious recruitment program designed to fill those gaps. It was thus not entirely unwelcome news when Valens heard of Ermanaric's death and the disintegration of his kingdom before an invasion of hordes of barbaric Huns from the far east. After failing to hold the Dniester or the Prut rivers against the Huns, the Goths retreated southward in a massive emigration, seeking new settlements and shelter south of the Danube, i.e. Roman lands, which they may have thought could be held against the enemy. In 376, the Visigoths under their leader Fritigern advanced to the far shores of the lower Danube and sent an ambassador to Valens who had set up his capital in Antioch, and requested asylum.[59]
As Valens' advisers were quick to point out, these Goths could supply troops who would at once swell Valens' ranks and decrease his dependence on conscription from provinces—thereby increasing revenues from the recruitment tax. However, it would mean hiring them and paying in gold or silver for their services. Fritigern had enjoyed contact with Valens in the 370s when Valens supported him in a struggle against Athanaric stemming from Athanaric's persecution of
When Fritigern and his Goths, to the number of 200,000 warriors and almost a million all told, crossed the Danube, Valens's mobile forces were tied down in the east, on the Persian frontier (Valens was attempting to withdraw from the harsh terms imposed by Shapur and was meeting some resistance on the latter's part). This meant that only limitanei units were present to oversee the Goths' settlement. The small number of imperial troops present prevented the Romans from stopping a Danube crossing by a group of Ostrogoths and yet later on by Huns and Alans. What started out as a controlled resettlement might any moment turn into a major invasion. But the situation was worsened by corruption in the Roman administration, as Valens' generals accepted bribes rather than depriving the Goths of their weapons as Valens had stipulated and then proceeded to enrage them by such exorbitant prices for food that they were soon driven to the last extremity. Meanwhile, the Romans failed to prevent the crossing of other barbarians who were not included in the treaty.[61] In early 377, the Goths revolted after a commotion with the people of Marcianopolis, and defeated the corrupt Roman governor Lupicinus near the city at the Battle of Marcianople.[62]
After joining forces with the
By 378, Valens himself was ready to march west from his eastern base in
Battle of Adrianople
According to the Latin historians Ammianus Marcellinus and
After a brief stay aimed at building his troop strength and gaining a toehold in Thrace, Valens moved out to
Meanwhile, Fritigern once again sent an emissary of peace in his continued manipulation of the situation. The resultant delay meant that the Romans present on the field began to succumb to the heat. The army's resources were further diminished when an ill-timed attack by the Roman archers made it necessary to recall Valens' emissary, comes Richomeres. The archers were beaten and retreated in humiliation. Returning from foraging to find the battle in full swing, Gothic cavalry under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax now struck and, in what was probably the most decisive event of the battle, the Roman cavalry fled.
From here, Ammianus gives two accounts of Valens' demise. In the first account, Ammianus states that Valens was "mortally wounded by an arrow, and presently breathed his last breath" (XXXI.12). His body was never found or given a proper burial. In the second account, Ammianus states the Roman infantry was abandoned, surrounded and cut to pieces. Valens was wounded and carried to a small wooden hut. The hut was surrounded by the Goths who put it to the torch, evidently unaware of the prize within. According to Ammianus, this is how Valens perished (XXXI.13.14–6).
A third, apocryphal, account states that Valens was struck in the face by a Gothic dart and then perished while leading a charge. He wore no helmet, in order to encourage his men. This action turned the tide of the battle which resulted in a tactical victory but a strategic loss. The church historian Socrates likewise gives two accounts for the death of Valens.
Some have asserted that he was burnt to death in a village whither he had retired, which the barbarians assaulted and set on fire. But others affirm that having put off his imperial robe he ran into the midst of the main body of infantry; and that when the cavalry revolted and refused to engage, the infantry were surrounded by the barbarians, and completely destroyed in a body. Among these it is said the Emperor fell, but could not be distinguished, in consequence of his not having on his imperial habit.[68]
When the battle was over, two-thirds of the eastern army lay dead. Many of their best officers had also perished. What was left of the army of Valens was led from the field under the cover of night by comes Richomeres and general Victor.
J. B. Bury, a noted historian of the period, provides a specific interpretation on the significance of the battle: it was "a disaster and disgrace that need not have occurred."[69]
For Rome, the battle incapacitated the government. Emperor Gratian, nineteen years old, was overcome by the debacle, and, until he appointed
Assessment and legacy
"Valens was utterly undistinguished, still only a protector, and possessed no military ability: he betrayed his consciousness of inferiority by his nervous suspicion of plots and savage punishment of alleged traitors," writes
Valens is also credited with the commission of a short history of the Roman State. This work, produced by Valens' secretary Eutropius, and known by the name Breviarium ab Urbe condita, tells the story of Rome from its founding. According to some historians, Valens was motivated by the necessity of learning Roman history, that he, the royal family, and their appointees might better mix with the Roman senatorial class.[74]
Religious policy
During his reign, Valens had to confront the theological diversity that was beginning to create division in the Empire.
Valens was baptised by the Arian
Appearance
The coin portraits of Valentinian and Valens give the faces of both emperors "heavy features", rendered with "no animation, and little consistency".[78] Toward the end of his Res Gestae (XXXI.14.7), Ammianus says that Valens was physically compact, dark-complected, and of average height, "knock-kneed, and somewhat pot-bellied", and had a "dimmed" pupil in one eye (the translator John C. Rolfe suggests that this is a description of a cataract).[79]
See also
Notes
- ^ From the fourth century onwards, emperors and other high-profile men bore the name "Flavius", the nomen adopted by the Constantinian dynasty. It was used only as a status marker,[3] but it's still often included as part of late emperors' names.[4]
- ^ Sometimes enumerated as Valens II, after Valerius Valens (r. 316–317).[10]
Citations
- ^ a b c d e Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 931.
- ISBN 0-521-07233-6.
- JSTOR 41540754.
- ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 930.
- ISBN 978-1440838095.
- JSTOR 25606700.
- ^ Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 904.
- Homoian" – Lenski 2003, p. 5
- ^ a b Errington (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius (2006), pp. 176, 186–187
- ^ Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG, Auction 125
- ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8.
- ^ New Catholic Encyclopedia, "Valens"
- ^ a b Oxford Classical Dictionary, 'Valens'
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica,ancient Rome – The reign of Valentinian and Valens
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Biography: Valens. Accessed 28 February 2024.
- ^ Lenski 2003, p. 88.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 24 October 2020
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 20.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 24 October 2020
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 848.
- ^ a b Hughes 2013, p. 18.
- ^ a b c Curran 1998, p. 81.
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 19.
- ^ a b Hughes 2013, p. 21.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 847–848.
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 22.
- ^ Potter 2004, p. 522.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 849.
- ^ Noel Emmanuel Lenski (2002). Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D.. University of California Press. [full citation needed]
- ^ Errington 2006, p. 22.
- ^ Curran 1998, p. 82.
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 36.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 28 October 2020
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 850–852.
- ^ a b Curran 1998, p. 89.
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 42.
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 39.
- ^ Potter 2004, p. 518.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 850.
- ^ a b McEvoy 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-520-23332-4.
- ^ Lenski 1997.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 852–853.
- ^ a b c d Kienast 2017, pp. 316–318, "Valens".
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 853–854.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 890–891.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 892–893.
- ^ Hughes, Ian, Imperial Brothers,[full citation needed] pp. 86–95.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 93–94.
- ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 27.12.9.
- ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 27.12.10–11.
- ^ Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 27.12.13.
- ^ Hughes, Ian, Imperial Brothers,[full citation needed] pp. 102–106.
- ^ a b Curran 1998, p. 86.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, retrieved 25 October 2020
- ^ Curran 1998, p. 83-84.
- ^ Hughes 2013, p. 60.
- ^ Errington 2006, p. 26.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 920–923.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 925.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 925–926.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 927–928.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 931–932.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 935.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 934–935.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 935–936.
- ^ Historiae, 31.12–13.
- ^ The Ecclesiastical History. Vol. VI.38.
- ^ Bury, John Bagnell. "The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians". Retrieved 15 February 2022.
- ^ Jones 1964, p. 139.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 856.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 858.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, p. 857.
- ^ Eutropius, Breviarium, ed. H. W. Bird, Liverpool University Press, 1993, p. xix.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, Chapter 25.
- ^ Day et al. 2016, p. 28f.
- ^ Gibbon 1932, pp. 861–864.
- ISBN 0-500-23273-3.
- ISBN 0-674-99365-9.
References
- Curran, John (1998). "From Jovian to Theodosius". In ISBN 0-521-30200-5.
- Day, J.; Hakola, R.; Kahlos, M.; Tervahauta, U. (2016). Spaces in Late Antiquity: Cultural, Theological and Archaeological Perspectives. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-05179-4.
- Errington, R. Malcolm (2006). Roman Imperial Policy from Julian to Theodosius. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-3038-0.
- OCLC 564699495.
- Hughes, Ian (5 August 2013). Imperial Brothers: Valentinian, Valens and the Disaster at Adrianople. Pen and Sword. ISBN 978-1-4738-2863-6.
- Jones, A.H.M. (1964). The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey [Paperback, vol. 1]. Basil Blackwell Ltd. ISBN 0-8018-3353-1.
- Lenski, Noel (1997). "Valens (364–378 A.D)". De Imperatoribus Romanis.
- Lenski, Noel (2003). Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23332-8.
- ISBN 0-521-07233-6.
- McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013). Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367–455. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-966481-8.
- Potter, David S. (2004). The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10057-7.
External links
- Media related to Valens at Wikimedia Commons
- Laws of Valens
- This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valens relating to Christianity.