Valentinian dynasty

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Valentinian Dynasty
Dynasty of the Roman Empire
364–455
Solidus of Valens[a] of Valentinianic
Solidus of Valens[a]
Constantine III and
• 421
Constantius III & Galla Placidia
• 423–425
Joannes the Usurper
• 425–455
Valentinian III
Leo I
• 474
Leo II
• 475–476
Basiliscus the Usurper
• 474–491
Zeno
Historical eraLate antiquity
• Death of Jovian, Ascent of Valentinian I, Division of Empire
364
• Battle of Adrianople, Death of Valens
9 August 378
• Death of Theodosius I, Division of Empire
395
410
• Death of Valentinian III
455
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Constantinian dynasty (306–363)
Jovian (363–364)
Petronius Maximus
and Licinia Eudoxia (455)
Palladius and Eudocia (455)
Olybrius and Placidia (472)
and non-dynastic "shadow" emperors, to Fall of the Western Roman Empire (480)
Eastern empire: Theodosian dynasty (379–457)
Leonid dynasty (457–518)
Byzantine empire[b]
Map of Roman empire, showing provinces
Provinces and regions of the Empire
Map of Roman empire 100-500AD
Roman Empire 100–500, with invading tribes and the Battle of Adrianople
Diagram of the command structure of the Roman army
Command structure of Late Roman army
High command structure of the West Roman army c. 410–425

The Valentinian dynasty was a ruling house of five generations of dynasts, including five

Late Antiquity, lasting nearly a hundred years from the mid fourth to the mid fifth century. They succeeded the Constantinian dynasty (r. 306–363) and reigned over the Roman Empire from 364 to 392 and from 425 to 455, with an interregnum (392–423), during which the Theodosian dynasty
ruled and eventually succeeded them. The Theodosians, who intermarried into the Valentinian house, ruled concurrently in the east after 379.

The Valentinian dynasty's patriarch was

western empire. During the interregnum, Theodosius' son Honorius ruled in the west, and concurrently with Galla Placidia from 421. The dynasty has been labelled as Pannonian, based on the family origin in Pannonia Secunda
in the western Balkans.

Under the Valentinians, dynastic rule was consolidated and the division of the empire into west and east became increasingly entrenched. The empire was subject to repeated incursions along its borders, with the Danube frontier eventually collapsing in the northeast and barbarian invasions in the west eventually reaching Italy, and culminating with the sack of Rome in 410, which foreshadowed the eventual dissolution of the western empire in the late fifth century.

Background

The Valentinian dynasty (364–455) was a ruling house during the

Islamic states.[6] The period of the preceding Constantinian age (293–363) reaffirmed the importance of dynasty in legitimacy and succession.[7] This new dynastic structure would last until 454.[5] The house of Valentinian (the Valentiniani)[8] established continuity and succession from the Constantinians through marriages to a granddaughter and grand-niece of Constantine.[9] This granddaughter, Constantia (362–383), the only surviving child of Constantius II (r. 337–361), played an important role as a symbol of her dynasty for decades. The Constantinian legacy being described as the "indelible glow of empire".[4] While imperial heirs were relatively rare in this period, the marriages of imperial women raised special concerns, as possibly leading to the raising of pretenders to the throne. A number of them, such as Gratian's half-sisters, took a vow to become dedicated virgins (Latin: sanctae necessitudines, lit.'holy relatives').[4] Yet it was also an era in which women, either as empresses or as emperor consorts, rose to unprecedented power.[10][11][12] Another feature of this dynasty was the successive appointment of child emperors, radically changing the traditional image of emperors as men of deeds.[13] With Valentinian's division of the empire (Latin: divisio regni) in a new way, in 364, the two parts of the empire (Latin: partes imperii), east and west would progressively develop their own histories, until the split became permanent on the death of Theodosius I (r. 379–395).[14][15]

The Roman empire had controlled all lands surrounding the Mediterranean, a "Roman lake" surrounded by foreign lands (Latin:

Julian had died in 363 during an

terms of the peace treaty also forbad the Romans from involvement in Armenian affairs to assist Arsaces (Arshak), the Armenian king who had been Julian's ally during the war. This peace was to last thirty years[23]

Administration

Military administration

The major divisions of the late Roman army included a central force (

comes et magister utriusque militiae praesentalis) and comites domesticorum (comes domesticorum equitum, comes domesticorum peditum).[34][35][36]

Originally there was a separate command for the infantry under the Master of Foot (Latin:

magister peditum) and cavalry under the Master of Horse (Latin: magister equitum), with command in the praesental army specified as e.g. magister peditum praesentalis. Later these posts came under a single command, the Master of the Soldiers (Latin: magister militum)[37][38][39] As the army became increasingly dependent on recruiting forces from neighbouring peoples, predominantly German ("barbarization"), these units were referred to as federate units (Latin: foederati).[40]

Within the Emperor's palace, a military corps (schola), the protectorum composed of the

Protectores (sing. protector) could also be assigned to the magistri or provincial commands. The title protector could also be used as an honorific.[d][42][34][43]

Civilian administration

Serdica (Sofia) in the Balkans, and Antioch (Antakya) in Syria, while Rome remained the home of the Senate and aristocracy.[12]

The founding of

Officials (officiales, sing. officialis) at the comitatus (imperial court) and bureaucracy included two major groups (Latin: scholae, sing. schola) with similar functions who acted between the court and the

provinces (Latin: provinciae, sing. provincia). Court officials were known as palatini (sing. palatinus). Members of the scholae were scholarares sing. scholaris.[47] The schola notariorum were the notaries (Latin: notarii, sing. notarius), who were clerks that formed the imperial secretariat and who drafted and authenticated documents. Principal among these were the senior secretaries (Latin: primicerii notariorum, lit.'the first [name] on the wax [tablet] among the notaries', sing. primicerius). The notarii carried out a wide range of imperial missions, including being informants.[48][49] The other was the schola agentum in rebus. These were the agentes in rebus, or agents of business, answerable to the magister officiorum (Master of the Officers),[e] who was the head of the palatine administration or Imperial Chancellor, and drew his staff from within their ranks. They could also hold appointments within the central clerical bureaux (sacra scrinia, lit. sacred book chests). The magister officiorum was also responsible for the organisation of the schola notariorum. The primicerius of the schola maintained the notitia dignitatum,[51] and like the magister drew from the ranks of his schola, who could also hold positions in the scrinia.[52][50][53]

Three such scrinia were found at the Imperial court, the scrinium memoriae (Ministry of Requests), scrinium epistularum (Ministry of Correspondence) and scrinium libellorum (Ministry of Petitions), each under a bureau director (Latin: magister scrinii), and these magistri scriniorum reported in turn to the magister officiorum.[50][54]

The palatini included both civilian and military personnel

Titles

victory titles (or names) to commemorate political or military events.[55] A common title was maximus, e.g. Germanicus maximus. The suffix Latin: maximus, lit.'greatest' indicates victor, with the prefix, the vanquished, in this case Germania (see List of Roman imperial victory titles).[56]

During the Republic, the title consul (pl. consules), was bestowed on two of the worthiest of men, who had to be at least 42 years old. These were annual appointments and they served as the highest executive officers and also as generals in the army. By the late Roman empire, the title of consul was becoming more honorific, and the emperors were increasingly likely to take the title for themselves, rather than bestow it on distinguished citizens.[57] In appointing his infant son as consul, Theodosius changed the nature of the appointment to that of a family prerogative.[58] Traditionally, years were dated by the consulships (consular dating),[59][60] since consuls took up their position on January 1 (from 153 BC).[61]

Comites (sing. comes, lit.'companion'), often translated as count,[62] were high-ranking officials or ministers who enjoyed the trust and companionship of the emperor, and collectively were referred to as comitiva, the governing council of the empire, from which the term comitatus for the imperial court is derived. The title comes could be purely honorific without indicating a specific function, or integral to a descriptive title, as in the military roles.[35]

History

A.D. 364 was a time of great uncertainty on the late Roman empire.

Persian War of that year, and the Roman army had elected Jovian (r. 363–364), one of his officers, to replace him. Jovian himself died within less than a year, at Dadastana, Turkey, while his army was on the way from Antioch, the capital of Roman Syria, to Constantinople.[7] Jovian was found dead in his quarters on 17 February 364, under circumstances some considered suspicious.[63]

The fourth century historian

augustus by the general staff of the army. The Consularia Constantinopolitana[f] and the Chronicon Paschale give the date of his elevation as 25/6 February.[67][68]

To avoid the instability caused by the deaths of his two predecessors, and rivalry between the armies, Valentinian (r. 364–375) acceded to the demands of his soldiers and ruled the

augusta in 364.[71]

Carved inscription to Valentinian I and Valens
Inscription to Valentinian I and Valens from Esztergom on the Danube [g]

First generation: Valentinian I and Valens (364–378)

Valentinian and Valens received many titles during their reigns, other than the customary emperor and augustus. Both were awarded the

quinquennalia.[71] Valentinian also celebrated his quinquennalia on 25 February 369 and likewise received the honour of Gothicus Maximus.[71]

Valentinian and Valens were consuls for the third time in 370.[71] 373 was the year of Valentinian and Valens's fourth and last joint consulship.[71] In 373/374, Theodosius the magister equitum's son, was made dux of the province of Moesia Prima.[74] Valens celebrated his decennalia on 29 March 374.[71] At the fall of his father, the magister equitum, the younger Theodosius, dux of Moesia Prima, retired to his estates in the Iberian Peninsula, where he married his first wife, Aelia Flaccilla in 376.[74] Gratian's fourth consulship was in 377.[75] Valens's sixth consulship was in 378, again jointly with Valentinian II.[71]

Founding of the Valentiniani

Solidus of Valentinian I showing Valentinian and Gratian on the reverse, marked: victores augusti ("the Victors Augusti"). A palm bough is between them and Victory crowns each with a wreath

tribunus in 357.[68] Valentinian served in Gaul and in Mesopotamia in the reign of Constantius II (r. 337–361).[68] Valentinian's younger brother Valens was also born at Cibalae, in 328, and followed a military career.[70] According to the Chronicle of Jerome and the Chronicon Paschale, Valentinian's eldest son Gratian was born in 359 at Sirmium, now Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia, the capital of Pannonia Secunda, to Valentinian's first wife Marina Severa.[76][75] Gratian was appointed consul in 366 and was entitled nobilissimus puer.[h][76] According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Valens's son Valentinianus Galates was born on 18 January 366, and made a consul in 369, and is known to have been titled nobilissimus puer, but died in infancy at Caesarea in Cappadocia (Kayseri) around 370.[71]

In the summer of 367, Valentinian became ill, while at Civitas Ambianensium (Amiens), raising questions about his succession. On recovery, he presented his then eight-year-old son to his troops on 27 August, as co-augustus (r. 367–383), passing over the customary initial step of caesar.[75][76][67][77] Gratian's tutor was the rhetor Ausonius, who mentioned the relationship in his epigrams and a poem.[76] Around 370, Valentinian's wife Marina Severa died and was interred in the Church of the Holy Apostles and Valentinian married again, wedding Justina.[67] In autumn 371, Valentinian's second son, also called Valentinian, was born to Justina, possibly at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).[78][79] The younger Valentinian would later succeed his father, as Valentinian II (r. 375–392). Gratian, who was then 15, was married in 374 to Constantius II's 13-year-old daughter Constantia at Trier.[76][75] This marriage consolidated the dynastic link to Constantinians, as had his father's second marriage to Justina, with her family connections.[4]

Because of their family origins in the Roman province of Pannonia Secunda in the northern Balkans, the Hungarian historian Andreas Alföldi dubbed the dynasty the "Pannonian emperors".[80] On the 9 April 370, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the Church of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[71] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin: Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[71]

Domestic policy

Beginning between 365 and 368, Valentinian and Valens reformed the precious metal coins of the

minting.[68][70] Such coins were inscribed ob (gold) and ps (silver).[68] Valentinian improved tax collection and was frugal in spending.[68]

Death of Valentinianus Galates from the 9th-century Paris Gregory (Bibliothèque nationale de France)
Detail of drawing of obverse of medal of Valens showing the three reigning emperors: Valens (C), Gratian (R), and Valentinian II (L) and marked: pietas d·d·d·n·n·n· augustorum[i]
Map of the Roman empire in 400 AD
The Roman empire ca. 400 with provinces and dioceses and division into west and east

In 368, Valentinian was made aware of reports of magical practices in Rome and ordered the use of torture, but later backed down under protests from the Senate. Nevertheless, many prominent Roman citizens underwent investigation and execution. The affair led to a deterioration in the relations between emperor and senate.[81] On the 9 April 370, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the Church of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[71] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin: Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[71]

Religious policy

In the fourth century, following Constantine (r. 307–311), Christianity spread steadily throughout the population of the empire, in various forms, such that by the accession of Valentinian in 364 most people were Christian by default. In this time the church became progressively more organized and hierarchical and the

Arian Auxentius (355–374), died, the sectarian violence between the Nicene and Arian Christians in the city had increased. The new bishop arrived with soldiers from the Roman army to suppress the violence by force.[84]

Although

Constantinople episcopate whose power was growing with the burgeoning imperial bureaucracy. This was the background which Valens found himself having to deal with.[85]

According to the 5th-century Greek historian

homoian, a sect of Arianism. Like Valentinian, her origins were Pannonian, which with the western Balkans was the centre of the anti-Nicene theology, in contrast to the Nicenes of Gaul and Italy.[87]

The 5th-century Greek historian

bishops in 373.[68]

Foreign policy

For most of their reign, Valentinian and Valens were involved with defending the empire's frontiers, primarily in the northwest, where the frontier ran roughly along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[89]

In the later years of Valens' reign, geopolitical events began to increasingly bear on the Roman empire. On the eastern frontier, new problems arose with the incursion of nomads into the settled areas to the south of the

Sasanian Persians (224–651), the repercussions began to be progressively felt from Eurasia to Eastern Europe.[90] Among these were the Huns, who by the 370s had conquered much of the area north of the Caucasus and Black Sea and were putting pressure on the Goths from the Dnieper west. To the Romans, they appeared a much greater threat than the earlier Alans, whom they placed in a tributary position. The Romans failed to appreciate the significance of these changes, with catastrophic consequences.[91]

Northwest frontier

When a party of

Châlons-sur-Marne), forcing them to retire.[92] An opportunity to further weaken the Alamanni occurred in the summer of 368, when king Vithicabius was murdered in a coup, and Valentinian and his son Gratian crossed the Moenus (Main river) laying waste to their territories.[75][93]

Valentinian fortified the frontier from

Belgic channel, but the construction was attacked by Alamanni at Mount Pirus (the Spitzberg, Rottenburg am Neckar). In 369 (or 370) Valentinian then sought to enlist the help of the Burgundians, who were involved in a dispute with the Alamanni, but a communication failure led to them returning to their lands without joining forces with the Romans.[68] It was then that the magister equitum, Count Theodosius and his son Theodosius (the Theodosi) attacked the Alamanni through Raetia, taking many prisoners and resettling them in the Po Valley in Italy.[74][68][67] A key to Alamanni success was their kings. Valentinian made one attempt to capture Macrianus in 372, but eventually made peace with him in 374.[68]

The necessity to make peace was the increasing threat from other peoples, the

Brigetio (Szőny, Hungary) where he died suddenly in November.[94]

Africa

The

Iubaleni tribe, led a rebellion in 372, proclaiming himself augustus. This time Valentinian dispatched Count Theodosius in 373 to restore order, who immediately had Romanus arrested. After a prolonged campaign in the coastal plains of Mauretania Caesariensis, Theodosius eroded support for Firmus by diplomatic means, the latter committing suicide in 374. Although the African campaign cemented Theodosius' reputation, intrigues following Valentinian's death in late 375 led to an investigation and he was executed at Carthage. [95]

Eastern frontier
Sasanians
Map of the Caucasus region at the beginning of the fourth century
Map of the Caucasus region at the beginning of the 4th C.

In the east, Valens was faced with the threat of the Persian

Isaurians.[70] Eventually the conflict between the two sides was overtaken by developments in the western part of Valens territory, once the Danube frontier was breached in 376.[97]

Goths and Huns
Gothic tribes south of the Danube
in 376

In 366, Valens accused the

Gothic wars fought between the Romans and Goths.[100]

Valens was at Antioch at the time, preoccupied with the conflict with the Sasanians over Armenia.

Haemus mountains and meeting the legions dispatched from Pannonia and Gaul at a place called ad Salices, near Marcianopolis. The resulting Battle of the Willows produced heavy casualties on both sides, but no victory. Meanwhile, the Goths were consolidating their position with alliances between them and Huns and Alans, while Gratian was obliged to pull back his forces in February 378 to deal with incursions by the Lentienses across the Rhine in Raetia.[75][101] Valens' next sally against the Goths, at Adrianople, in the summer of 378, would prove both disastrous and fatal (see Battle of Adrianople).[102]

Usurpers and rebellions

In addition to foreign invaders, Valentinian and Valens had to deal with a series of domestic threats.

Procopius the Usurper (365–366)

On 1 November 365, while on his way to

Caesarea in Cappadocia (Kayseri). Valens now faced an internal rebellion, Gothic incursions in Thrace and a Persian threat in the east. He dispatched the Jovii and Victores legions to put down the rebellion. However, Procopius had quickly established himself, winning over generals and military units, including two that Julian passed over, Gomoarius and Agilo. He falsely proclaimed the death of Valentinian I in the west and recruited Gothic troops to his side, claiming his Constantinian legacy.[103] As part of his claim to legitimacy Procopius ensured he was always accompanied by the princess Constantia, still a child, and her mother, the dowager empress Faustina.[4] Constantia had been born to the emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361) and his third wife Faustina after her father's death.[104][105]

Procopius' use of his Constantinian hostages met with some success. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, when Valens forces met the usurper's army at Mygdus

Nacolia, and again the latter's general Agilo defected. Procopius fled, but his own commanders seized and took him to Valens, who ordered all of them beheaded.[107]

The Great Conspiracy (365–366)

In June 367, Valentinian learned of what appeared to be a coordinated uprising. In

Rutupiae (Richborough, Kent) and quickly subdued London. Moving north on 369 he encountered yet another uprising, that of Valentinus, an exiled Pannonian general.[67] Having overthrown and executed Valetinus, Theodosius set about restoring the defences of the frontier and major settlements, establishing a new province of Valentia. Having sent messages regarding his victories back to Valentinian, he returned to court and was promoted to magister equitum.[68][67][74] In the autumn of 368 the Franks and Saxons were also driven back by Jovinus.[67][110][l]

Death of Valentinian I (375) and succession

Valentinian I died at Brigetio (

deified, as was the custom, becoming known in Latin: Divus Valentinianus Senior, lit.'the Divine Valentinian the Elder'.[67][111]

With the death of Valentinian I, in the east Valens became the senior augustus

half brother), the army on the Danube acclaiming him augustus in a palatine coup[111] at Aquincum (Budapest) on 22 November 375, despite Gratian's existing prerogatives.[76][79] The young Valentinian II was essentially the subject of the influence of his courtiers and mother, the Arian Christian Justina.[79] Gratian's tutor, Ausonius, became his quaestor, and together with the magister militum, Merobaudes, the power behind the throne.[111] Negotiations eventually left Gratian as the senior western emperor.[111] Valens and Valentinian II were consuls for the year 376, Valens's fifth consulship.[71] Neither Gratian or Valentinian travelled much, which was thought to be due to not wanting the populace to realise how young they were. Gratian is said to have visited Rome in 376, possibly to celebrate his decennalia on 24 August,[75] but whether the visit actually took place is disputed.[111]

Marble portrait head of Gratian (Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier)

Battle of Adrianople and death of Valens (378)

Once Gratian had put down the invasions in the west in early 378, he notified Valens that he was returning to Thrace to assist him in his struggle against the Goths. Late in July, Valens was informed that he Goths were advancing on

deified by consecratio as Latin: Divus Valens, lit.'the Divine Valens'.[71]

Second generation: Gratian and Valentinian II (375–394)

Solidus of Theodosius I showing Theodosius and Gratian on the reverse, marked: victoria augg ("the Victory of the Augusti")
Solidus of Valentinian II showing Valentinian and Theodosius I on the reverse, marked victoria augg ("the Victory of the Augusti")

Gratian (378–383)

With the death of Valens in 378, Gratian (r. 367–383) was now the senior augustus, Valentinian II being only 7 years old, while Gratian was 19. Following the Battle of Adrianople, Gratian moved to Sirmium in the western Balkans to consider his options. The Goths had overrun the eastern Balkans (Moesia and Thrace), while in the west Gaul was under increasing threat from Franks and Alamanni. Gratian quickly realised he could not rule the whole empire on his own, and in particular he needed military expertise. He reached out to the younger Theodosius, son of Count Theodosius, living in retirement on the family estates in Spain, bringing him to Sirmium as magister equitum. On 19 January, he crowned him augustus as the eastern emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395).[74][75][112] In 371, Gratian was consul for the second time,[75] and for the third time in 374.[75]

The new augustus's territory spanned the Roman

Lower Moesia, Thrace, Dacia Ripensis, and Macedonia. The treaty was signed on 3 October.[114] On 3 August that year, Gratian issued an edict against heresy.[75]

In 380, Gratian was made consul for the fifth time and Theodosius for the first. In September the augusti Gratian and Theodosius met, returning the Roman diocese of Dacia to Gratian's control and that of Macedonia to Valentinian II.[75][74] The same year, Gratian won a victory, possibly over the Alamanni, that was announced officially at Constantinople.[75] In the autumn of 378 Gratian issued an edict of religious toleration.[75]

Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died.[75] Gratian remarried, wedding Laeta, whose father was a consularis of Roman Syria.[76] Gratian was awarded the victory titles of Germanicus Maximus and Alamannicus Maximus, and Francicus Maximus and Gothicus Maximus in 369.[75]

Religious policy

On accession, Gratian accepted the traditional title and role of pontifex maximus (high priest),[m] though by then largely honorific.[116] According to Zosimus, in 382 Gratian refused the robe of office of the pontifex maximus from a delegation of senators from Rome.[117] The accuracy of the story is disputed, Zosimus being considered an unreliable source. No such garment was associated with the priesthood.[116][76] Zosimus also stated that Gratian had repudiated the pagan title, as unlawful for a Christian to hold, and that no further emperor used that title, which became pontifex inclitus (or inclytus), "honourable priest".[116][118]

With the collapse of the Danube frontier[n] under the incursions of the Huns and Goths, Gratian moved his seat from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) to Mediolanum (Milan) in 381,[44] and was increasingly aligned with the city's bishop, Ambrose (374–397), and the Roman Senate, shifting the balance of power within the factions of the western empire.[76][4][117] Gratian was then forthright in his promotion of Nicene Christianity. He ordered the removal of the Altar of Victory from the Roman Senate's Curia Julia in the winter of 383/383.[o][75][76] State endowments for pagan cults were cancelled, and the Vestals, or vestal virgins (Latin: vestales) deprived of their stipends.[117][76]

Death of Gratian (383): Magnus Maximus the Usurper (383—388)

In June 383 Gratian took his army through the

Brenner pass and into Gaul, where the Alamanni were pushing into Raetia.[75] At the same time, a rebellion broke out in Britain under Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388), the comes Britanniarum (commander of the Roman troops in Britain), where there had been a smouldering discontent since the elevation of Theodosius. Magnus Maximus, who had served under the comes Theodosius and had won a victory over the Picts in 382, was proclaimed augustus by his troops in the Spring of 383 and crossed the channel, encamping near Lutetia (Paris). While the legions on the Rhine welcomed him, those in Gaul remained loyal to Gratian. After five days of skirmishes between the two forces, Gratian's troops began to lose confidence in him and his General (magister peditum), Merobaudes defected to this usurper, forcing Gratian to flee towards the Alps, accompanied by some cavalry. Gratian was pursued by Andragathius, Maximus' magister equitum who apprehended him crossing the Rhone at Lugdunum (Lyon).[119] On 23 August 383, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Gratian, then 24, and his ministers were executed.[120][75][121] Having secured Gratoan's territories, Maximus then established his court at the former imperial residence in Trier.[122]

The body of Constantia, Gratian's first wife, who had died earlier that year, arrived in Constantinople on 12 September 383 and was buried in the complex of the Church of the Holy Apostles (Apostoleion) on 1 December, the resting place of a number of members of the imperial family, starting with Constantine in 337, under the direction of Theodosius, who had embarked on making the site a dynastic symbol. This was the last occasion that a member of the western imperial family was buried in the east, a new mausoleum being built at

Latin: Divus Gratianus, lit.'the Divine Gratian'.[75][123] His remains were finally interred in Mediolanum in 387 or 388.[75]

Solidus of Valentinian II showing Valentinian and Theodosius I on the reverse, each holding a mappa

On the death of Gratian, the 12 year old Valentinian II (r. 375–392) became the sole augustus in the west. Maximus attempted to persuade Valentinian to move his court to Trier, but Ambrose, suspecting treachery, made excuses while securing the alpine passes. Maximus then demanded recognition from Theodosius.[119] Although Valentinian's court looked east to Theodosius for assistance, the latter was preoccupied with establishing his own dynasty, having elevated his eldest son Arcadius (r. 383–408) to augustus on his quinquennalia, on 19 August 383.[74] He was also dealing with threats on his eastern frontier that precluded any western military excursions.[124]

In the summer of 384, Valentinian met his junior co-augustus Theodosius, and in November he celebrated his decennalia.[78] The position of the senior emperor Valentinian, was strengthened during the first few months of Maximus' rule, while Ambrose was conducting negotiations on the emperors' behalf.[121]

Eventually Theodosius decided to recognise the usurper and brokered an uneasy peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus in the summer of 384 which endured for several years.[119] Under this agreement Maximus kept the western portion of the Empire including Britain, Spain and Gaul, while Valentinian ruled over Italy, Africa and Illyricum, allowing Theodosius to concentrate on his eastern problems and the threat to Thrace.[79][125]

The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 386 or 387, when he invaded Italy from the west. Valentinian, escaped with Justina, reaching Thessalonica (

Battle of Poetovio and eventually executed at Aquileia on 28 August.[121][78][126]

Valentinian II (383–392)

Following the defeat of Magnus Maximus by Theodosius in 388, Valentinian was restored to the throne. On 18 June 389, Theodosius arrived in Rome to display his second son, the five year old Honorius. He reconciled with Magnus Maximus' supporters and pardoned Symmachus, then in hiding, since he needed the support of the Gallo-Hispanic aristocracy, of which both he and Maximus were members. Theodosius then decided to stay in Milan, making sure that Valentinian was under the influence of his supporters. Overall, Theodosius, a skilled diplomat, made it clear that in practice he was the sole emperor of the two empires.[127]

It was not until 15 April of 391 that Theodosius decided to return to the east, to deal with a family conflict between his eldest son Arcadius, now fourteen, and his second wife Galla. Before his departure he consolidated his hold on the empire. He dispatched the nineteen year old Valentinian, who had been a mere figurehead, and his court to Trier, giving him jurisdiction over the western part of the empire. Theodosius also placed Valentinian under the unofficial

regency of his trusted Frankish general (magister militum) Arbogast, who had defeated the Franks in 389.[79][78] In Italy he placed the civil administration under the prefect, Virius Nicomachus Flavianus. This allowed him to control the west remotely, while he ruled the remainder directly, from Italy eastwards, from Constantinople. In doing so, he inadvertently created a hierarchy, with the northwest as the junior partner in the empire.[128]

Valentinian attempted to exert his independence in the spring of 392, dismissing Arbogast. The latter defied Valentinian stating that only Theodosius could reverse his own appointment.[129] On 15 May 392, Valentinian II was found dead at Vienna (Vienne), Gaul, at the age of 21, either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast.[78] Valentinian II was buried next to his half-brother and co-augustus Gratian in Mediolanum in late August or early September 392.[78] He was deified with the consecratio: Divae Memoriae Valentinianus, lit.'the Divine Memory of Valentinian'.[78]

Religious policies

The death of Gratian in 383, brought religious conflict to the fore again. The Altar of Victory was an important symbol to the Roman pagan aristocracy, who hoped that the young Valentinian would look on their cause more favourably. In the autumn of 384, the Senator

Q Aurelius Symmachus, then prefect of Rome (Latin: praefectus urbi) pleaded with Valentinian for its return to the Curia Julia, but Ambrose succeeded in firmly rejecting such a suggestion. While the bishop held considerable sway over the emperor, tensions began to emerge.[130][78]

According to Ambrose's Sermon Against Auxentius and his 76th Epistle when the bishop was summoned to the court of Valentinian II and his mother

Basilica Vetus, after which the Nicenes moved to rescue their co-religionists in the Portian Basilica, among them Augustine of Hippo and his mother, chanting Psalm 79.[84] Although Valentinian backed down under the popular pressure, but relations between court and church, and the Arians succeeded in getting a law passed recognising the creed of Ariminum (359).[130]

On 23 January 386, Valentinian issued an edict of toleration regarding the Arian Christians, after receiving the Arian bishop

Flavius Euodius, and Magnus Maximus's official portrait is known to have been shown at Alexandria, in the part of the empire administered by Theodosius.[121]

On Valentinian's restoration, Theodosius' clemency emboldened the supporters of the altar of Victory to once more travel to Milan to request its return, but their pleas were rejected and Symmachus exiled from Rome

massacre of Salonica in 390, until he publicly repented. This solidified the Church's position that man must serve God first, and the emperor second. Having established this precedent, Ambrose could now press the emperor into a major suppression of paganism, starting in February 391.[134]

Theodosian interregnum (392–423)

On the death of Valentinian II in 392, Theodosius became the sole adult emperor, with his two sons Arcadius and Honorius as junior emperors, over the east and west respectively. Theodosius was also the last emperor to rule both empires. Arcadius and Honorius were Theodosius' two surviving sons by his first marriage to

Latin: Ioannes), may have been born in 394. Galla, herself, died at the end of April 394 according to Zosimus.[74]

Theodosius' reign was immediately challenged. Arbogast, seeking to wield imperial power, was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background.[136] Instead, on 22 August at the behest of Arbogast, a magister scrinii and vir clarissimus, Eugenius (r. 392–394), was acclaimed augustus at Lugdunum.[74] Like Maximus he sought Theodosius's recognition in vain, minting new coins bearing the image of Theodosius and his son Arcadius in both trier and Milan, and attempting to recruit Ambrose as negotiator.[136][137]

Any hopes that Theodosius would recognise Eugenius dissipated when, according to Polemius Silvius, Theodosius raised his second son Honorius to augustus on 23 January 393, the year of his third consulship[74] citing Eugenius's illegitimacy.[136] According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus (the Vipava river) on 6 September 394 and on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum where a victory celebration was held.[74][137]

According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius died in Mediolanum on 17 January 395.[74][138] His funeral was held there on 25 February, and his body transferred to Constantinople, where according to the Chronicon Paschale he was buried on 8 November 395 in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[74] He was deified as: Divus Theodosius, lit.'the Divine Theodosius'.[74]

Religious policy

Eugenius made some limited concessions to the Roman religion.[136] On 8 November 392, all cult worship of the gods was forbidden by Theodosius.[74]

Sons of Theodosius (395–425)

On the death of Theodosius I in 392, the empire became permanently divided between his sons. The two sons, who had been made junior emperors as children, by their father, were only 15 and 8 years old respectively, and thus figureheads under the control of guardians (Latin: parens). These, in turn, were often locked in struggles for power with each other. The most influential was

comes et magister utriusque militiae praesentalis, lit.'count and master of all forces') of Theodosius' army. Stilicho had allied himself to the dynasty by marrying Theodosius' adopted niece, Serena, and claimed he had been appointed parens of the whole empire, but this role was rejected by the eastern court. He then further strengthened his dynastic position by marrying his daughters, first Maria and on her death Thermantia, to the emperor Honorius. This period saw both an acceleration of the barbarisation of the western army and a massive settling of Roman lands by barbarian tribes. These were mainly Germanic tribes, with Visigoths and Burgundians in Gaul. Britain was abandoned and Italy itself became increasingly vulnerable to infiltration by barbarian forces, and progressively contracted to resemble more a government of Italy than an empire, while accommodation became more often the preferred foreign policy, rather than confrontation. By contrast the Constantinople court enjoyed a period of relative peace with its eastern Persian neighbours, although remaining vulnerable on its western front in Thrace and Macedonia to the forces of Alaric I. Administrative reforms in the military, with the emergence of a magister utriusque militiae or MVM,[139] who were frequently German, often left the emperor as a puppet under their control. During this period the two empires were at worst openly hostile and at best uncooperative.[140]

The invasion of Italy (400–408) and the usurpation of Constantine III (407–411)
Map of Gaul, showing the route of the Via Domitia, connecting Italy and Spain
Map of Gaul, with route (purple) of Via Domitia, connecting Italy and Spain

In the summer of 401, Alaric entered north Italy, marching west on Mediolanum, until halted by Stilicho at

Constantine, who crossed into Gaul in the spring of 407, taking command of the Roman forces there and advancing as far as the alps. Meanwhile, Stilicho's attempts to appease Alaric and induce him to halt Constantine's advances was leading to both a deterioration in his relations with Honorius and his own popularity, culminating in a mutiny among the troops. Honorius then had Stilicho executed on 22 August 408.[141]

Stilicho's enemies at court were fiercely anti-German, resulting in the massacre of many of them in the Roman military. As a result, many barbarians defected to Alaric, who was now emboldened to once again invade Italy, this time with his brother-in-law

Arelate, (Arles, Provence) in the strategic province of Gallia Narbonensis, stretching from the alps in the east to the Pyrenees in the south, and thus guarding the entrances to both Italy and Spain. Through this province ran the Via Domitia, connecting Rome with Spain.[142] He raised his son Constans to augustus and in early 410, supposedly to assist Honorius against Alaric, entered Italy but withdrew when the latter had Constantine's magister equitum executed on suspicion of treachery. The situation was further complicated by the incursion of barbarians into Spain in October 409, and the appearance of another usurper, Maximus (r. 409–411), there. Maximus' reign was short lived, his forces deserting him, while Honorius' forces, under the patriciusConstantius, captured and executed Constantine in September 411.[143]

Barbarian settlement of Gaul (411–413)

The removal of Constantine secured south-eastern Gaul, and hence the approaches to Italy for Honorius, but was followed by further usurpation of

Burdigala (Bordeaux) in south west Gaul as well as the adjacent province of Gallia Narbonensis in the south east.[144]

Third generation: Galla Placidia and Constantius III (392–450)

Early life at the Eastern court (388–394)

Solidus of Galla Placidia, marked: d·n· galla placidia p·f· aug· ("Our Lady Galla Placidia, Pious Happy Augusta") The reverse shows Victory and a crux gemmata
Map of Roman Empire in 400 showing the four Praetorian prefectures
The four Praetorian prefectures in 400

Theodosius I set about establishing a stable dynasty in the east. When he raised his five year old eldest son, Arcadius, to the rank of augusta in 383 he also raised his first wife, Aelia Flaccilla as augusta. In doing so he set a new precedent. Rather than the traditional portrayal of imperial women as goddesses he invested her in the same regalia as an emperor, indicating equal status. This tradition was then continued in the house of Theodosius. The empress died in 386, shortly after her infant daughter Pulcheria, leaving him with his two young sons.[145][146]

In 387 the western emperor Valentinian II, together with his mother Justina and sisters, including Galla, were forced to flee to Thessalonica by the usurper Magnus Maximus, seeking Theodosius' help. Traveling to Thessalonica to meet them, the widowed Theodosius decided to marry Galla.[q][147] This move consolidated his dynastic legitimacy by marriage into the house of Valentinian. In 388 Theodosius led his army into the western empire to defeat Magnus Maximus, and Justina and her other daughters returned to Italy, leaving Galla, now pregnant, in Thessalonica, where her daughter, Galla Placidia, was born. [148][149][150]

Galla Placidia (c. 388–450) was thus both Valentinian and Theodosian, being the daughter of Theodosius I and Galla, and hence granddaughter of Valentinian I, as well as half sister to the child emperors Honorius and Arcadius.[151] Galla and her daughter travelled to Constantinople, where her stepson, Arcadius, rejected her, forcing Theodosius' return from Italy in 391.[152]

According to

nobilissima puella),[r] with the honorific prefix: domina nostra, lit.'our lady', though this may have occurred later.[154] Placidia also received an advanced education in secular and religious matters.[153][155][156]

At the Western court (394–409)

Less than a year later, her mother died in childbirth in 394. Subsequently, she was raised by her father's niece Serena and her husband Stilicho, with their three children (Maria, Thermantia and Eucherius). Theodosius had adopted Serena, on the death of her father, Honorius, bringing her to Constantinople from the family estates in Spain.[12] Theodosius then took his forces west to attack Eugenius, defeating him on 6 September. Shortly after, Theodosius became ill and sent for his children. Serena then travelled to Milan with Honorius, Placidia and her nurse Elpidia to join him. He proclaimed Honorius emperor and promoted Stilicho to magister militum, but by 17 January 395 he had died, leaving his children orphans, Placidia being seen years old. Stilicho then claimed he had been appointed parens principium to the child emperors.[157] After the funeral, Serena and the children accompanied his body to Constantinople, where he was interred at the Church of the Holy Apostles in November.[158][159] Following Theodosius' death, Stilicho strengthened his dynastic position by marrying his two daughters to Honorius in succession and betrothing his son Eucherius to Placidia, while they were all still children, while his wife Serena acted as a de facto Empress as the informal regent for Honorius.[12] Although Placidia spent much of her early years in Milan, the continuing invasions of Visigoths led to the court moving to a more secure position further south at Ravenna in 402, but with frequent visits to Rome, where Stilicho and Serena also maintained a house.[12][154][160]

Captivity (409–416)

Meanwhile, Stilicho's reputation was waning and his relationship with Honorius deteriorating, leading to Honorius ordering his execution in Ravenna in 408, together with Eucherius and Serena, who were in Rome with Placidia. According to Zosimus, the nobilissima puella Galla Placidia approved the Roman Senate's decision to execute Serena.[153] All this happened against a background of Visigothic advances, laying siege to Rome in both 408 and 409,[161] and finally sacking Rome in 410. In either 409 or 410, the teenage Galla Placidia was captured by the Visigoths and was taken through southern Italy, where Alaric died and was succeeded by Athaulf.[162] Placidia, who was effectively a hostage, then became a bargaining item in the negotiations between the Visigoths and the Romans over a three-year period.[163][164] Placidia and her captors eventually returned to southern Gaul in the spring of 412.[153][165][166]

During the protracted negotiations between the Roman court and the Visigoths, Placidia was married to Athaulf.

Novempopulana and Narbonensis, excluding the seaboard) in 418. By this stage, the western empire was reduced to Italy and Africa but with only a tenuous hold on western Illyricum, Gallia and Hispania.[168][153]

Empress (417–450)

Map of Roman empire in 420
Roman empire 420, with migratory pathways

Placidia was returned to Ravenna and, against her will, was married to the Constantius on 1 January 417 according to Olympiodorus of Thebes.[169][74][153] Their first child was Justa Grata Honoria (Honoria),[153] and a little more than a year later Valentinian on 4 July 419.[12][170][171] In February 421, Honorius, who lacked an heir himself, reluctantly elevated Constantius augustus as Constantius III (r. 421–421), Galla Placidia as augusta by her husband and Honorius and Valentinian as nobilisimus, indicating he was destined for succession.[153] These titles were not recognised by the eastern court[157] and Constantius died within seven months in September 421.[172][170]

Relations between Placidia and Honorius deteriorated, with their respective supporters clashing in the streets of Ravenna, leading to her moving her family to Constantinople in 422.[173][170][157] She may have been banished by Honorius, with whom her relations were previously close, because according to Olympiodorus, Philostorgius, Prosper, and the Chronica Gallica of 452, gossip about the nature of their relationship that arose after Constantius's death caused them to quarrel.[153] Galla Placidia involved herself in political and religious affairs, for instance supporting a candidate to the disputed see of Rome.[157]

Augusta
") The reverse is marked: bono reipublicae ("The Good of the Republic")

Fourth generation: Valentinian III and Honoria (423–455)

Map of Roman empire in 450
Empires of Attila and Roman Empire c. 450, with settlement areas of Germanic tribes within the Imperium Romanorum. Controlled areas in colour
Solidus of Valentinian III celebrating an imperial marriage showing, Theodosius II (C), blessing the union of Valentinian (L) and Theodosius' daughter Licinia Eudoxia (R)

Honorius died in 423, leaving Galla Placidia as the only ruler in the west, though not recognised in the east. At the eastern court, Theodosius I's eldest son Arcadius (r. 383–408) had died in 408, and been succeeded by his son Theodosius II (r. 402–450), also a child emperor, but who was now 22, and who considered himself the sole ruler of the empire.[173][157]

However, the vacuum was rapidly filled by the appearance of a usurper in Rome, the

Carthago (Carthage) to the Vandals in 439 and subsequent invasion of Sicilia, rapidly followed by Hunnic invasions across the Danube in 441 precipitated another crisis.[178] Much of the 440s was spent in a struggle to maintain control in Hispania and Gallia, while the progressive loss of territories and hence tax base, continued to weaken the central government in Ravenna.[179]

Honoria and Attila (449–453)

Battle of Campus Mauriacus

Valentinian's older sister,

Hunnic empire. One consequence of the elimination of the Hunnic threat was that Valentinian, now 34, had no further use for Aetius and assassinated him on or about 21 September 454, only to be killed himself by Aetius' bodyguards a few months later on 16 March 455. Valentinian having no male heirs, the dynasty, and dynastic rule in the west, ended.[181][172]

Although Marcellinus Comes and Olympiodorus imply that Placidia had been stripped of her title by Honorius, she most likely retained her rank while resident at the eastern court.

Flavius Aetius. She was active in religious patronage, building churches in Jerusalem, Ravenna and Rome. According to Agnellus and the Chronica Gallica of 452, Galla Placidia died on 25 November 450 and was buried in the S. Nazarius monasterium in Ravenna.[157][74][153]

Fifth generation: Placidia and Eudocia (455-484)

Petronius, Palladius and Eudocia: The sack of Rome and captivity in Africa (455)

Valentinian III, having no male heirs, there was no incentive for the Eastern empire to intervene on his death. He did, however have two daughters, Eudocia (439–466/474) and Placidia (439–484), who represented the fifth and last generation to ascend the throne, though only briefly. On Valentinian's death, power was seized by the senator Petronius Maximus (r. 455–455), who had colluded with Valentinian in Aetius' death, the following day. As was customary, he immediately forced Valentinian's widow Licinia Eudoxia, who was the daughter of Theodosius II, to marry him in order to establish a dynastic legitimacy. This was unsuccessful, in that this succession was not recognised in the east. He furthered this ambition by appointing his son Palladius as caesar and then marrying him to Eudocia. Around this time, her sister, Placidia, was married to Olybrius, a Roman senator, of the distinguished Anicia gens.[182][183] However Petronius Maximus' reign was short lived. The Empress Licinia Eudoxia sought revenge, summoning the Vandal king Gaiseric from Africa to her aid. Gaiseric then proceeded to sack Rome, kill Petronius (22 May 455) and carry off the Empress and her two daughters to Cartago. It is assumed that Palladius also died at this time. He then married Eudocia to his son Huneric.[182] Petronius's death is considered to mark the final chapter of the Valentinianic dynasty. He and his successors, being referred to as the "shadow" emperors of the last years of the western empire, their reigns being so short, and because real power lay with the military commanders.[184][185]

Shadow emperors: Avitus to Anthemius & Escape to Constantinople (455–472)

On Petronius' death, his

Leo I (r. 457–474), Olybrius having travelled to Cartago. Eudocia, remained with her husband and son, Hilderic a later Vandal king, in Africa, but Licinia and Placidia joined the eastern court.[182]

Anthemius to Olybrius and Placidia (472)

In 472, relations between Ricimer, now the effective power in the empire, and Anthemius had deteriorated to the extent that Ricimer declared Olybrius (r. 472), who had been considered as emperor in the past, augustus in April. This placed the second of Valentinian III's daughters on the throne. Anthemius was finally deposed and killed on 11 July. Ricimer died shortly after this on 18 August, followed by Olybrius on 2 November, after only a few months as emperor. This ended the era of Valentinian dynasts.[188][189] But through Placidia, Valentinian's descendants continued to be a part of the Roman nobility in Constantinople until the end of the 6th century.[183]

Epilogue: The fall of the western empire (472-480)

Map of Roman empire in 476
Roman empire 476, with migratory pathways. Dalmatia was annexed to Italy in 480

With the death of

Leo I dispatching Julius Nepos (r. 474–475) to depose him, which he did in June, assuming power himself. His reign was equally brief, facing a rebellion by his own magister militum, Orestes, forcing Nepos to flee from Ravenna to Dalmatia in August 475, from where he attempted to rule in Salona. Meanwhile, Orestes installed his own son Romulus Augustulus[s] (r. 475–476), then 15, in Ravenna in October. By this time the effective empire had shrunk further considerably, and Orestes and Romulus Augustus faced a major threat from Odoacer, a barbarian soldier and leader of the foederati in Italy. Odoacer advanced on Ravenna, killing Orestes at Placentia in August 476. The army then proclaimed Odoacer rex Italiae (King of Italy) who proceeded to Ravenna deposing Romulus Augustulus on 4 September. This effectively ended imperial rule in the west. The Senate symbolically sent the imperial regalia to the eastern court in recognition of this, and it was accepted, the eastern Emperor, Zeno treating Odoacer as the titular ruler of Italy, under the nominal reign of Nepos, until the latter's death in 480. With Nepos’ death, Odoacer annexed Dalmatia and Zeno became the sole Roman Emperor, of what was now a solely eastern empire, later named Byzantine after the original settlement of Byzantium on which Constantinople was based. The western empire now being a series of rump European kingdoms.[191][192][193]

Family trees


Simplified tree

Gratianus
Valens, Emp.1)Marina SeveraValentinian I, Emp.2)Justina
Galla
Theodosius I, Emp.1)Aelia Flaccilla
Constantius III, Emp.Galla PlacidiaSerenaStilicho
Aelia EudoxiaArcadius, Emp.Pulcheria
Licinia EudoxiaValentinian III, Emp.PulcheriaHonorius, Emp.MariaEucherius
PlacidiaOlybrius, Emp.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Showing Valentinian and Valens on the reverse, marked victoria augg· ("the Victory of Our Augusti"). They hold together the orb, a symbol of power
  2. ^ The retrospective periodization of late antiquity and of the Eastern Roman empire and the Byzantine Empire does not have consensus, with estimates varying from the fifth to seventh centuries for the beginning of the latter period[1][2]
  3. ^ Full title: notitia omnium dignitatum et administrationum tam civilium quam militarium (information of all ranks of both civil and military administrations)[30][31]
  4. ^ Eventually protector and domesticus became interchangeable[41]
  5. ^ Hence, alternative name magistriani[50]
  6. ^ One of the Fasti, or chronological accounts of Roman consuls
  7. Augusti
    …"
  8. ^ Most noble child
  9. Szilágysomlyo Treasure, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum
    )
  10. ^ Athanasius had been repeatedly exiled by successive emperors
  11. ^ The exact location of Mygdus, mentioned by Marcellinus, is unknown but is believed to be east of Nicaea[106]
  12. ^ The exact details and chronology of this rebellion are unclear and disputed[109]
  13. Vestals[115]
  14. ^ See also Roman military frontiers and fortifications
  15. ^ The winged statue and altar of Victory had been placed in the Senate by Augustus in 29 BC, to commemorate the triumph of the spirit of Rome over her adversaries. As such it was a focal symbol of senate deliberations. It had a chequered history, being first removed by Constantius II in 357 and restored by Julian[115]
  16. ^ In late antiquity, great weight was placed on Kēdeia (Greek: κηδεία), the bonds of kinship[135]
  17. ^ Galla's date of birth is not known
  18. ^ nobilissimus and nobilissima were generally considered signs of an intention to be raised to augustus or augusta
  19. ^ Augustulus, i.e "little augustus"[190]

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Bibliography

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