Valentinian dynasty
Valentinian Dynasty Dynasty of the Roman Empire | |
---|---|
364–455 | |
Constantine III and | |
• 421 | Constantius III & Galla Placidia |
• 423–425 | Joannes the Usurper |
• 425–455 | Valentinian III |
Leo I | |
• 474 | Leo II |
• 475–476 | Basiliscus the Usurper |
• 474–491 | Zeno |
Historical era | Late antiquity |
• Death of Jovian, Ascent of Valentinian I, Division of Empire | 364 |
• Battle of Adrianople, Death of Valens | 9 August 378 |
• Death of Theodosius I, Division of Empire | 395 |
410 | |
• Death of Valentinian III | 455 |
The Valentinian dynasty was a ruling house of five generations of dynasts, including five
The Valentinian dynasty's patriarch was
Under the Valentinians, dynastic rule was consolidated and the division of the empire into west and east became increasingly entrenched. The empire was subject to repeated incursions along its borders, with the Danube frontier eventually collapsing in the northeast and barbarian invasions in the west eventually reaching Italy, and culminating with the sack of Rome in 410, which foreshadowed the eventual dissolution of the western empire in the late fifth century.
Background
The Valentinian dynasty (364–455) was a ruling house during the
The Roman empire had controlled all lands surrounding the Mediterranean, a "Roman lake" surrounded by foreign lands (Latin:
Julian had died in 363 during an
Administration
Military administration
The major divisions of the late Roman army included a central force (
Originally there was a separate command for the infantry under the Master of Foot (Latin:
Within the Emperor's palace, a military corps (schola), the protectorum composed of the
Civilian administration
The founding of
Officials (officiales, sing. officialis) at the comitatus (imperial court) and bureaucracy included two major groups (Latin: scholae, sing. schola) with similar functions who acted between the court and the
Three such scrinia were found at the Imperial court, the scrinium memoriae (Ministry of Requests), scrinium epistularum (Ministry of Correspondence) and scrinium libellorum (Ministry of Petitions), each under a bureau director (Latin: magister scrinii), and these magistri scriniorum reported in turn to the magister officiorum.[50][54]
The palatini included both civilian and military personnel
Titles
During the Republic, the title consul (pl. consules), was bestowed on two of the worthiest of men, who had to be at least 42 years old. These were annual appointments and they served as the highest executive officers and also as generals in the army. By the late Roman empire, the title of consul was becoming more honorific, and the emperors were increasingly likely to take the title for themselves, rather than bestow it on distinguished citizens.[57] In appointing his infant son as consul, Theodosius changed the nature of the appointment to that of a family prerogative.[58] Traditionally, years were dated by the consulships (consular dating),[59][60] since consuls took up their position on January 1 (from 153 BC).[61]
History
A.D. 364 was a time of great uncertainty on the late Roman empire.
The fourth century historian
To avoid the instability caused by the deaths of his two predecessors, and rivalry between the armies, Valentinian (r. 364–375) acceded to the demands of his soldiers and ruled the
First generation: Valentinian I and Valens (364–378)
Valentinian and Valens received many titles during their reigns, other than the customary emperor and augustus. Both were awarded the
Valentinian and Valens were consuls for the third time in 370.[71] 373 was the year of Valentinian and Valens's fourth and last joint consulship.[71] In 373/374, Theodosius the magister equitum's son, was made dux of the province of Moesia Prima.[74] Valens celebrated his decennalia on 29 March 374.[71] At the fall of his father, the magister equitum, the younger Theodosius, dux of Moesia Prima, retired to his estates in the Iberian Peninsula, where he married his first wife, Aelia Flaccilla in 376.[74] Gratian's fourth consulship was in 377.[75] Valens's sixth consulship was in 378, again jointly with Valentinian II.[71]
Founding of the Valentiniani
In the summer of 367, Valentinian became ill, while at Civitas Ambianensium (Amiens), raising questions about his succession. On recovery, he presented his then eight-year-old son to his troops on 27 August, as co-augustus (r. 367–383), passing over the customary initial step of caesar.[75][76][67][77] Gratian's tutor was the rhetor Ausonius, who mentioned the relationship in his epigrams and a poem.[76] Around 370, Valentinian's wife Marina Severa died and was interred in the Church of the Holy Apostles and Valentinian married again, wedding Justina.[67] In autumn 371, Valentinian's second son, also called Valentinian, was born to Justina, possibly at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).[78][79] The younger Valentinian would later succeed his father, as Valentinian II (r. 375–392). Gratian, who was then 15, was married in 374 to Constantius II's 13-year-old daughter Constantia at Trier.[76][75] This marriage consolidated the dynastic link to Constantinians, as had his father's second marriage to Justina, with her family connections.[4]
Because of their family origins in the Roman province of Pannonia Secunda in the northern Balkans, the Hungarian historian Andreas Alföldi dubbed the dynasty the "Pannonian emperors".[80] On the 9 April 370, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the Church of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[71] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin: Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[71]
Domestic policy
Beginning between 365 and 368, Valentinian and Valens reformed the precious metal coins of the
In 368, Valentinian was made aware of reports of magical practices in Rome and ordered the use of torture, but later backed down under protests from the Senate. Nevertheless, many prominent Roman citizens underwent investigation and execution. The affair led to a deterioration in the relations between emperor and senate.[81] On the 9 April 370, according to the Consularia Constantinopolitana and the Chronicon Paschale, the Church of the Holy Apostles adjoining the Mausoleum of Constantine in Constantinople was inaugurated.[71] In 375, the Baths of Carosa (Latin: Thermae Carosianae) – named for Valens's daughter – were inaugurated in Constantinople.[71]
Religious policy
In the fourth century, following Constantine (r. 307–311), Christianity spread steadily throughout the population of the empire, in various forms, such that by the accession of Valentinian in 364 most people were Christian by default. In this time the church became progressively more organized and hierarchical and the
Although
According to the 5th-century Greek historian
The 5th-century Greek historian
Foreign policy
For most of their reign, Valentinian and Valens were involved with defending the empire's frontiers, primarily in the northwest, where the frontier ran roughly along the Rhine and Danube rivers.[89]
In the later years of Valens' reign, geopolitical events began to increasingly bear on the Roman empire. On the eastern frontier, new problems arose with the incursion of nomads into the settled areas to the south of the
Northwest frontier
When a party of
Valentinian fortified the frontier from
The necessity to make peace was the increasing threat from other peoples, the
Africa
The
Eastern frontier
Sasanians
In the east, Valens was faced with the threat of the Persian
Goths and Huns
In 366, Valens accused the
Valens was at Antioch at the time, preoccupied with the conflict with the Sasanians over Armenia.
Usurpers and rebellions
In addition to foreign invaders, Valentinian and Valens had to deal with a series of domestic threats.
Procopius the Usurper (365–366)
On 1 November 365, while on his way to
Procopius' use of his Constantinian hostages met with some success. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, when Valens forces met the usurper's army at Mygdus
The Great Conspiracy (365–366)
In June 367, Valentinian learned of what appeared to be a coordinated uprising. In
Death of Valentinian I (375) and succession
Valentinian I died at Brigetio (
With the death of Valentinian I, in the east Valens became the senior augustus
Battle of Adrianople and death of Valens (378)
Once Gratian had put down the invasions in the west in early 378, he notified Valens that he was returning to Thrace to assist him in his struggle against the Goths. Late in July, Valens was informed that he Goths were advancing on
Second generation: Gratian and Valentinian II (375–394)
Gratian (378–383)
With the death of Valens in 378, Gratian (r. 367–383) was now the senior augustus, Valentinian II being only 7 years old, while Gratian was 19. Following the Battle of Adrianople, Gratian moved to Sirmium in the western Balkans to consider his options. The Goths had overrun the eastern Balkans (Moesia and Thrace), while in the west Gaul was under increasing threat from Franks and Alamanni. Gratian quickly realised he could not rule the whole empire on his own, and in particular he needed military expertise. He reached out to the younger Theodosius, son of Count Theodosius, living in retirement on the family estates in Spain, bringing him to Sirmium as magister equitum. On 19 January, he crowned him augustus as the eastern emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395).[74][75][112] In 371, Gratian was consul for the second time,[75] and for the third time in 374.[75]
The new augustus's territory spanned the Roman
In 380, Gratian was made consul for the fifth time and Theodosius for the first. In September the augusti Gratian and Theodosius met, returning the Roman diocese of Dacia to Gratian's control and that of Macedonia to Valentinian II.[75][74] The same year, Gratian won a victory, possibly over the Alamanni, that was announced officially at Constantinople.[75] In the autumn of 378 Gratian issued an edict of religious toleration.[75]
Sometime in 383, Gratian's wife Constantia died.[75] Gratian remarried, wedding Laeta, whose father was a consularis of Roman Syria.[76] Gratian was awarded the victory titles of Germanicus Maximus and Alamannicus Maximus, and Francicus Maximus and Gothicus Maximus in 369.[75]
Religious policy
On accession, Gratian accepted the traditional title and role of pontifex maximus (high priest),[m] though by then largely honorific.[116] According to Zosimus, in 382 Gratian refused the robe of office of the pontifex maximus from a delegation of senators from Rome.[117] The accuracy of the story is disputed, Zosimus being considered an unreliable source. No such garment was associated with the priesthood.[116][76] Zosimus also stated that Gratian had repudiated the pagan title, as unlawful for a Christian to hold, and that no further emperor used that title, which became pontifex inclitus (or inclytus), "honourable priest".[116][118]
With the collapse of the Danube frontier[n] under the incursions of the Huns and Goths, Gratian moved his seat from Augusta Treverorum (Trier) to Mediolanum (Milan) in 381,[44] and was increasingly aligned with the city's bishop, Ambrose (374–397), and the Roman Senate, shifting the balance of power within the factions of the western empire.[76][4][117] Gratian was then forthright in his promotion of Nicene Christianity. He ordered the removal of the Altar of Victory from the Roman Senate's Curia Julia in the winter of 383/383.[o][75][76] State endowments for pagan cults were cancelled, and the Vestals, or vestal virgins (Latin: vestales) deprived of their stipends.[117][76]
Death of Gratian (383): Magnus Maximus the Usurper (383—388)
In June 383 Gratian took his army through the
The body of Constantia, Gratian's first wife, who had died earlier that year, arrived in Constantinople on 12 September 383 and was buried in the complex of the Church of the Holy Apostles (Apostoleion) on 1 December, the resting place of a number of members of the imperial family, starting with Constantine in 337, under the direction of Theodosius, who had embarked on making the site a dynastic symbol. This was the last occasion that a member of the western imperial family was buried in the east, a new mausoleum being built at
On the death of Gratian, the 12 year old Valentinian II (r. 375–392) became the sole augustus in the west. Maximus attempted to persuade Valentinian to move his court to Trier, but Ambrose, suspecting treachery, made excuses while securing the alpine passes. Maximus then demanded recognition from Theodosius.[119] Although Valentinian's court looked east to Theodosius for assistance, the latter was preoccupied with establishing his own dynasty, having elevated his eldest son Arcadius (r. 383–408) to augustus on his quinquennalia, on 19 August 383.[74] He was also dealing with threats on his eastern frontier that precluded any western military excursions.[124]
In the summer of 384, Valentinian met his junior co-augustus Theodosius, and in November he celebrated his decennalia.[78] The position of the senior emperor Valentinian, was strengthened during the first few months of Maximus' rule, while Ambrose was conducting negotiations on the emperors' behalf.[121]
Eventually Theodosius decided to recognise the usurper and brokered an uneasy peace agreement between Valentinian and Magnus Maximus in the summer of 384 which endured for several years.[119] Under this agreement Maximus kept the western portion of the Empire including Britain, Spain and Gaul, while Valentinian ruled over Italy, Africa and Illyricum, allowing Theodosius to concentrate on his eastern problems and the threat to Thrace.[79][125]
The peace with Magnus Maximus was broken in 386 or 387, when he invaded Italy from the west. Valentinian, escaped with Justina, reaching Thessalonica (
Valentinian II (383–392)
Following the defeat of Magnus Maximus by Theodosius in 388, Valentinian was restored to the throne. On 18 June 389, Theodosius arrived in Rome to display his second son, the five year old Honorius. He reconciled with Magnus Maximus' supporters and pardoned Symmachus, then in hiding, since he needed the support of the Gallo-Hispanic aristocracy, of which both he and Maximus were members. Theodosius then decided to stay in Milan, making sure that Valentinian was under the influence of his supporters. Overall, Theodosius, a skilled diplomat, made it clear that in practice he was the sole emperor of the two empires.[127]
It was not until 15 April of 391 that Theodosius decided to return to the east, to deal with a family conflict between his eldest son Arcadius, now fourteen, and his second wife Galla. Before his departure he consolidated his hold on the empire. He dispatched the nineteen year old Valentinian, who had been a mere figurehead, and his court to Trier, giving him jurisdiction over the western part of the empire. Theodosius also placed Valentinian under the unofficial
Valentinian attempted to exert his independence in the spring of 392, dismissing Arbogast. The latter defied Valentinian stating that only Theodosius could reverse his own appointment.[129] On 15 May 392, Valentinian II was found dead at Vienna (Vienne), Gaul, at the age of 21, either by suicide or as part of a plot by Arbogast.[78] Valentinian II was buried next to his half-brother and co-augustus Gratian in Mediolanum in late August or early September 392.[78] He was deified with the consecratio: Divae Memoriae Valentinianus, lit. 'the Divine Memory of Valentinian'.[78]
Religious policies
The death of Gratian in 383, brought religious conflict to the fore again. The Altar of Victory was an important symbol to the Roman pagan aristocracy, who hoped that the young Valentinian would look on their cause more favourably. In the autumn of 384, the Senator
According to Ambrose's Sermon Against Auxentius and his 76th Epistle when the bishop was summoned to the court of Valentinian II and his mother
On 23 January 386, Valentinian issued an edict of toleration regarding the Arian Christians, after receiving the Arian bishop
On Valentinian's restoration, Theodosius' clemency emboldened the supporters of the altar of Victory to once more travel to Milan to request its return, but their pleas were rejected and Symmachus exiled from Rome
Theodosian interregnum (392–423)
On the death of Valentinian II in 392, Theodosius became the sole adult emperor, with his two sons Arcadius and Honorius as junior emperors, over the east and west respectively. Theodosius was also the last emperor to rule both empires. Arcadius and Honorius were Theodosius' two surviving sons by his first marriage to
Theodosius' reign was immediately challenged. Arbogast, seeking to wield imperial power, was unable to assume the role of emperor himself because of his non-Roman background.[136] Instead, on 22 August at the behest of Arbogast, a magister scrinii and vir clarissimus, Eugenius (r. 392–394), was acclaimed augustus at Lugdunum.[74] Like Maximus he sought Theodosius's recognition in vain, minting new coins bearing the image of Theodosius and his son Arcadius in both trier and Milan, and attempting to recruit Ambrose as negotiator.[136][137]
Any hopes that Theodosius would recognise Eugenius dissipated when, according to Polemius Silvius, Theodosius raised his second son Honorius to augustus on 23 January 393, the year of his third consulship[74] citing Eugenius's illegitimacy.[136] According to Socrates Scholasticus, Theodosius defeated Eugenius at the Battle of the Frigidus (the Vipava river) on 6 September 394 and on 1 January 395, Honorius arrived in Mediolanum where a victory celebration was held.[74][137]
According to the Consularia Constantinopolitana, Theodosius died in Mediolanum on 17 January 395.[74][138] His funeral was held there on 25 February, and his body transferred to Constantinople, where according to the Chronicon Paschale he was buried on 8 November 395 in the Church of the Holy Apostles.[74] He was deified as: Divus Theodosius, lit. 'the Divine Theodosius'.[74]
Religious policy
Eugenius made some limited concessions to the Roman religion.[136] On 8 November 392, all cult worship of the gods was forbidden by Theodosius.[74]
Sons of Theodosius (395–425)
On the death of Theodosius I in 392, the empire became permanently divided between his sons. The two sons, who had been made junior emperors as children, by their father, were only 15 and 8 years old respectively, and thus figureheads under the control of guardians (Latin: parens). These, in turn, were often locked in struggles for power with each other. The most influential was
The invasion of Italy (400–408) and the usurpation of Constantine III (407–411)
In the summer of 401, Alaric entered north Italy, marching west on Mediolanum, until halted by Stilicho at
Stilicho's enemies at court were fiercely anti-German, resulting in the massacre of many of them in the Roman military. As a result, many barbarians defected to Alaric, who was now emboldened to once again invade Italy, this time with his brother-in-law
Barbarian settlement of Gaul (411–413)
The removal of Constantine secured south-eastern Gaul, and hence the approaches to Italy for Honorius, but was followed by further usurpation of
Third generation: Galla Placidia and Constantius III (392–450)
Early life at the Eastern court (388–394)
Theodosius I set about establishing a stable dynasty in the east. When he raised his five year old eldest son, Arcadius, to the rank of augusta in 383 he also raised his first wife, Aelia Flaccilla as augusta. In doing so he set a new precedent. Rather than the traditional portrayal of imperial women as goddesses he invested her in the same regalia as an emperor, indicating equal status. This tradition was then continued in the house of Theodosius. The empress died in 386, shortly after her infant daughter Pulcheria, leaving him with his two young sons.[145][146]
In 387 the western emperor Valentinian II, together with his mother Justina and sisters, including Galla, were forced to flee to Thessalonica by the usurper Magnus Maximus, seeking Theodosius' help. Traveling to Thessalonica to meet them, the widowed Theodosius decided to marry Galla.[q][147] This move consolidated his dynastic legitimacy by marriage into the house of Valentinian. In 388 Theodosius led his army into the western empire to defeat Magnus Maximus, and Justina and her other daughters returned to Italy, leaving Galla, now pregnant, in Thessalonica, where her daughter, Galla Placidia, was born. [148][149][150]
Galla Placidia (c. 388–450) was thus both Valentinian and Theodosian, being the daughter of Theodosius I and Galla, and hence granddaughter of Valentinian I, as well as half sister to the child emperors Honorius and Arcadius.[151] Galla and her daughter travelled to Constantinople, where her stepson, Arcadius, rejected her, forcing Theodosius' return from Italy in 391.[152]
According to
At the Western court (394–409)
Less than a year later, her mother died in childbirth in 394. Subsequently, she was raised by her father's niece Serena and her husband Stilicho, with their three children (Maria, Thermantia and Eucherius). Theodosius had adopted Serena, on the death of her father, Honorius, bringing her to Constantinople from the family estates in Spain.[12] Theodosius then took his forces west to attack Eugenius, defeating him on 6 September. Shortly after, Theodosius became ill and sent for his children. Serena then travelled to Milan with Honorius, Placidia and her nurse Elpidia to join him. He proclaimed Honorius emperor and promoted Stilicho to magister militum, but by 17 January 395 he had died, leaving his children orphans, Placidia being seen years old. Stilicho then claimed he had been appointed parens principium to the child emperors.[157] After the funeral, Serena and the children accompanied his body to Constantinople, where he was interred at the Church of the Holy Apostles in November.[158][159] Following Theodosius' death, Stilicho strengthened his dynastic position by marrying his two daughters to Honorius in succession and betrothing his son Eucherius to Placidia, while they were all still children, while his wife Serena acted as a de facto Empress as the informal regent for Honorius.[12] Although Placidia spent much of her early years in Milan, the continuing invasions of Visigoths led to the court moving to a more secure position further south at Ravenna in 402, but with frequent visits to Rome, where Stilicho and Serena also maintained a house.[12][154][160]
Captivity (409–416)
Meanwhile, Stilicho's reputation was waning and his relationship with Honorius deteriorating, leading to Honorius ordering his execution in Ravenna in 408, together with Eucherius and Serena, who were in Rome with Placidia. According to Zosimus, the nobilissima puella Galla Placidia approved the Roman Senate's decision to execute Serena.[153] All this happened against a background of Visigothic advances, laying siege to Rome in both 408 and 409,[161] and finally sacking Rome in 410. In either 409 or 410, the teenage Galla Placidia was captured by the Visigoths and was taken through southern Italy, where Alaric died and was succeeded by Athaulf.[162] Placidia, who was effectively a hostage, then became a bargaining item in the negotiations between the Visigoths and the Romans over a three-year period.[163][164] Placidia and her captors eventually returned to southern Gaul in the spring of 412.[153][165][166]
During the protracted negotiations between the Roman court and the Visigoths, Placidia was married to Athaulf.
Empress (417–450)
Placidia was returned to Ravenna and, against her will, was married to the Constantius on 1 January 417 according to Olympiodorus of Thebes.[169][74][153] Their first child was Justa Grata Honoria (Honoria),[153] and a little more than a year later Valentinian on 4 July 419.[12][170][171] In February 421, Honorius, who lacked an heir himself, reluctantly elevated Constantius augustus as Constantius III (r. 421–421), Galla Placidia as augusta by her husband and Honorius and Valentinian as nobilisimus, indicating he was destined for succession.[153] These titles were not recognised by the eastern court[157] and Constantius died within seven months in September 421.[172][170]
Relations between Placidia and Honorius deteriorated, with their respective supporters clashing in the streets of Ravenna, leading to her moving her family to Constantinople in 422.[173][170][157] She may have been banished by Honorius, with whom her relations were previously close, because according to Olympiodorus, Philostorgius, Prosper, and the Chronica Gallica of 452, gossip about the nature of their relationship that arose after Constantius's death caused them to quarrel.[153] Galla Placidia involved herself in political and religious affairs, for instance supporting a candidate to the disputed see of Rome.[157]
Fourth generation: Valentinian III and Honoria (423–455)
Honorius died in 423, leaving Galla Placidia as the only ruler in the west, though not recognised in the east. At the eastern court, Theodosius I's eldest son Arcadius (r. 383–408) had died in 408, and been succeeded by his son Theodosius II (r. 402–450), also a child emperor, but who was now 22, and who considered himself the sole ruler of the empire.[173][157]
However, the vacuum was rapidly filled by the appearance of a usurper in Rome, the
Honoria and Attila (449–453)
Valentinian's older sister,
Although Marcellinus Comes and Olympiodorus imply that Placidia had been stripped of her title by Honorius, she most likely retained her rank while resident at the eastern court.
Fifth generation: Placidia and Eudocia (455-484)
Petronius, Palladius and Eudocia: The sack of Rome and captivity in Africa (455)
Valentinian III, having no male heirs, there was no incentive for the Eastern empire to intervene on his death. He did, however have two daughters, Eudocia (439–466/474) and Placidia (439–484), who represented the fifth and last generation to ascend the throne, though only briefly. On Valentinian's death, power was seized by the senator Petronius Maximus (r. 455–455), who had colluded with Valentinian in Aetius' death, the following day. As was customary, he immediately forced Valentinian's widow Licinia Eudoxia, who was the daughter of Theodosius II, to marry him in order to establish a dynastic legitimacy. This was unsuccessful, in that this succession was not recognised in the east. He furthered this ambition by appointing his son Palladius as caesar and then marrying him to Eudocia. Around this time, her sister, Placidia, was married to Olybrius, a Roman senator, of the distinguished Anicia gens.[182][183] However Petronius Maximus' reign was short lived. The Empress Licinia Eudoxia sought revenge, summoning the Vandal king Gaiseric from Africa to her aid. Gaiseric then proceeded to sack Rome, kill Petronius (22 May 455) and carry off the Empress and her two daughters to Cartago. It is assumed that Palladius also died at this time. He then married Eudocia to his son Huneric.[182] Petronius's death is considered to mark the final chapter of the Valentinianic dynasty. He and his successors, being referred to as the "shadow" emperors of the last years of the western empire, their reigns being so short, and because real power lay with the military commanders.[184][185]
Shadow emperors: Avitus to Anthemius & Escape to Constantinople (455–472)
On Petronius' death, his
Anthemius to Olybrius and Placidia (472)
In 472, relations between Ricimer, now the effective power in the empire, and Anthemius had deteriorated to the extent that Ricimer declared Olybrius (r. 472), who had been considered as emperor in the past, augustus in April. This placed the second of Valentinian III's daughters on the throne. Anthemius was finally deposed and killed on 11 July. Ricimer died shortly after this on 18 August, followed by Olybrius on 2 November, after only a few months as emperor. This ended the era of Valentinian dynasts.[188][189] But through Placidia, Valentinian's descendants continued to be a part of the Roman nobility in Constantinople until the end of the 6th century.[183]
Epilogue: The fall of the western empire (472-480)
With the death of
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References: Notes:
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See also
- Roman empire
- History of the Roman empire
- Eastern empire
- Western empire
- Byzantine empire
- Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire
- Structural history of the Roman military
- Late Roman army
- Gothic wars
- Constitution of the Late Roman Empire
- Roman Italy
- Roman provinces
- List of Roman imperial victory titles
Notes
- ^ Showing Valentinian and Valens on the reverse, marked victoria augg· ("the Victory of Our Augusti"). They hold together the orb, a symbol of power
- ^ The retrospective periodization of late antiquity and of the Eastern Roman empire and the Byzantine Empire does not have consensus, with estimates varying from the fifth to seventh centuries for the beginning of the latter period[1][2]
- ^ Full title: notitia omnium dignitatum et administrationum tam civilium quam militarium (information of all ranks of both civil and military administrations)[30][31]
- ^ Eventually protector and domesticus became interchangeable[41]
- ^ Hence, alternative name magistriani[50]
- ^ One of the Fasti, or chronological accounts of Roman consuls
- Augusti…"
- ^ Most noble child
- Szilágysomlyo Treasure, a hoard from the second quarter of the 5th century (Kunsthistorisches Museum)
- ^ Athanasius had been repeatedly exiled by successive emperors
- ^ The exact location of Mygdus, mentioned by Marcellinus, is unknown but is believed to be east of Nicaea[106]
- ^ The exact details and chronology of this rebellion are unclear and disputed[109]
- Vestals[115]
- ^ See also Roman military frontiers and fortifications
- ^ The winged statue and altar of Victory had been placed in the Senate by Augustus in 29 BC, to commemorate the triumph of the spirit of Rome over her adversaries. As such it was a focal symbol of senate deliberations. It had a chequered history, being first removed by Constantius II in 357 and restored by Julian[115]
- ^ In late antiquity, great weight was placed on Kēdeia (Greek: κηδεία), the bonds of kinship[135]
- ^ Galla's date of birth is not known
- ^ nobilissimus and nobilissima were generally considered signs of an intention to be raised to augustus or augusta
- ^ Augustulus, i.e "little augustus"[190]
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