Valentinian III
Valentinian III | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Roman emperor in the West | |||||||||
Augustus | 23 October 425 – 16 March 455 | ||||||||
Predecessor | Joannes | ||||||||
Successor | Petronius Maximus | ||||||||
Eastern emperors | Theodosius II (425–450) Marcian (450–455) | ||||||||
Born | 2 July 419 Ravenna | ||||||||
Died | 16 March 455 (aged 35) Rome | ||||||||
Burial | |||||||||
Spouse | Licinia Eudoxia | ||||||||
Issue | Eudocia Placidia | ||||||||
| |||||||||
Dynasty | Valentinian and Theodosian | ||||||||
Father | Constantius III | ||||||||
Mother | Galla Placidia | ||||||||
Religion | Christianity |
Valentinian III (
He was the son of
During Valentinian's reign the
Family and infancy
Valentinian was born in Ravenna, the capital of the Western Roman Empire, as the only son of Galla Placidia and Constantius III.[4] His mother was the younger half-sister of the western emperor Honorius (r. 393–423), while his father was at the time a patrician and the power behind the throne.[5]
Through his mother, Valentinian was a descendant both of
When Valentinian was less than two years old, Honorius appointed Constantius co-emperor, a position he would hold until his death seven months later. As a result of all these family ties, Valentinian was the son, grandson, great-grandson, cousin, and nephew (twice over) of Roman emperors.[7]
In either 421 or 423, Valentinian was given the title of nobilissimus by Honorius, although this title was not initially recognized in the eastern court of Theodosius II.[4] After the death of Constantius in 421, court intrigue forced Galla Placidia to flee from Honorius and move to Constantinople, where she, Valentinian and Honoria were taken in by Theodosius.[8]
Early reign (423–437)
Caesar
In 423, Emperor Honorius died, and his
Augustus
Given his
In 425, the court at Ravenna negotiated with the
Nevertheless, there were significant problems that threatened the viability of the Roman state in the west. The Visigoths were a constant presence in south-eastern Gaul and could not be dislodged. The Vandals in Hispania continued their incursions, and, in 429, commenced an invasion of Mauretania Tingitana.[17] The loss of these territories seriously impacted the state's ability to function. The burden of taxation became more and more intolerable as Rome's power decreased, and the loyalty of its remaining provinces was impaired in consequence.[17]
The initial period of Valentinian's reign was further troubled by a power struggle among the three principal military leaders of the west –
Bonifatius, in the meantime, had been unable to defeat Sigisvultus, whom Galla Placidia had sent to deal with the rebel. Bonifatius, therefore, entered into an agreement with the Vandals to come to his aid and, in return, they would divide the African provinces between themselves.[20] Concerned by this turn of events and determined to hold onto the African provinces at all costs, the court at Ravenna sought reconciliation with Bonifatius, who agreed in 430 to affirm his allegiance to Valentinian III and stop the Vandal king Gaiseric.[21]
In 431, Bonifatius was crushed and fled to Italy, abandoning western North Africa. The imperial court, and especially Galla Placidia, worried about the power being wielded by Aetius, stripped him of his command and gave it to Bonifatius. In the civil war that followed, Bonifatius defeated Aetius at the
Galla Placidia's regency came to an end in 437[14] when Valentinian travelled to Constantinople to marry his fiancée, Licinia Eudoxia. On his return to Rome, he was nominally the emperor, but in truth the management of imperial policy in the west was in the hands of Aetius.[24]
Ascendancy of Aetius (437–455)
From 436 to 439, Aetius was focused on the situation in Gaul. Serious Gothic defeats in 437 and 438 were undone by a Roman defeat in 439, which saw the status quo restored through a new truce.[25] He also enjoyed initial success against the Franks and the Burgundians, as well as putting down a revolt by the Bagaudae by 437. In 438, peace was also achieved with the Suebi in Spain,[26] the same year Valentinian's daughter, Eudocia, was born.[27]
With Aetius occupied in Gaul, Valentinian was unable to do anything to prevent the Vandals completely overrunning the remaining western African provinces, culminating in the
In 442, Aetius and Valentinian were compelled to acknowledge the Vandal conquests of Proconsular Africa, western Numidia, and
Unable to pacify Gaiseric by military means, Aetius decided that linking him to the imperial dynasty would be the next best thing. Consequently, sometime before 446, he convinced Valentinian to agree to a marriage between his eldest daughter, Eudocia, and Gaiseric's son, Huneric. The idea came to nothing, since Huneric was already married to the daughter of the king of the Visigoths.[33]
The imperial presence in Hispania continued to diminish during the early-to-mid 440s as the Suebi extended their control. By 444, all Spanish provinces had been lost except Hispania Tarraconensis, itself under pressure due to continued Bagaudic uprisings.[34] This loss of territory caused severe financial problems, with the Roman state openly acknowledging that there was insufficient revenue to meet its military needs.[35][36]
The emperor issued a law on 14 July 444, ending bureaucrats' exemption from the recruitment tax.[35] In that year, two additional taxes were issued in Valentinian's name, one a sales tax of around four percent and another on the senatorial class, specifically to recruit and supply new troops.[36][35] Senators of illustrious rank were required to contribute the money for maintaining three soldiers, senators of the second class money for one soldier, and senators of the third class one-third the cost of maintaining a soldier.[36] Valentinian himself was not exempt, sacrificing part of his reduced personal income to help the State in its financial straits.[36]
Hunnic invasions
In the 440s Valentinian made the Hunnic chieftain
Attila had been looking for a pretext to invade the West. In 450 he secured peace with the eastern court and entered the Gallic provinces, having allegedly been bribed by the Vandal king Gaiseric to attack Gaul's population of Visigoths.[37] Valentinian was furious over the invasion. The man who had carried Honoria's message to Attila was tortured to reveal all the details of the arrangement and then beheaded, and the emperor spared Honoria herself only after a great deal of persuasion from Galla Placidia.[39]
In early 451, Attila crossed the Rhine and entered the Belgic provinces, capturing Divodurum Mediomatricum (Metz) on 7 April. Aetius gathered together a coalition of forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and raced to prevent Attila from taking the city of Aurelianum (Orléans), successfully forcing the Huns to retreat.[40] The Roman-Germanic forces met Hunnic forces at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, resulting in a victory for Aetius, who sought to retain his position by allowing Attila and a significant number of his troops to escape.[41]
Attila regrouped, and, in 452, invaded Italy. He sacked and destroyed Aquileia and took Verona and Vincentia (Vicenza) as well.[42] Aetius was shadowing the Huns but did not have the troops to attack, so the road to Rome was open. Although Ravenna was Valentinian's usual residence, he and the court moved back to Rome as Attila approached.[43]
Valentinian sent Pope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern Emperor Marcian had launched an attack on Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn around and leave Italy.[44] The death of Attila in Pannonia in 453 and the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the Hunnic threat to the empire.[45]
Assassination
With the Hun invasion thwarted, Valentinian felt secure enough to begin plotting to have Aetius killed, egged on by Petronius Maximus, a high ranking senator who bore Aetius a personal grudge, and his chamberlain, the eunuch Heraclius.[46] Aetius, whose son had married Valentinian's youngest daughter, Placidia, was murdered by Valentinian on 21 September 454.[45] The ancient historian Priscus reported that Aetius was presenting a financial statement before the Emperor when Valentinian suddenly leapt from his throne and accused him of drunken depravity. He held him responsible for the empire's tribulations and accused him of plotting to take the empire away from him. Valentinian then drew his sword and together with Heraclius, rushed at the weaponless Aetius and struck him on the head, killing him on the spot. When Valentinian later boasted that he had done well to dispose of Aetius in such a way, a counsellor famously replied "Whether well or not, I do not know. But know that you have cut off your right hand with your left."[47]
On March 16 of the following year, the emperor himself was assassinated in Rome by two
The day after the assassination Petronius Maximus had himself proclaimed emperor by the remnants of the Western Roman army after paying a large donative.[50] He was not as prepared as he thought to take over and stabilize the depleted empire, however; after a reign of only 11 weeks, Maximus was stoned to death by a Roman mob.[51] King Gaiseric and his Vandals captured Rome a few days later and sacked it for two weeks.[52]
Character and legacy
Valentinian's reign is marked by the dismemberment of the Western Empire; by the time of his death, virtually all of North Africa, all of western Spain, and the majority of Gaul had passed out of Roman hands. He is described as spoiled, pleasure-loving, and heavily influenced by sorcerers and astrologers and devoted to religion, contributing to churches of Saint Lawrence in both Rome and Ravenna.[53]
He also gave greater authority to the
Some historians throughout 18th to 20th century, including Edward Gibbon and John Bagnall Bury, had unfavourable views of Valentinian III.[54][55]
References
- ^ Statue. Louvre
- ^ Lenaghan, J. "http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-591 (J. Lenaghan). Discussion: Portrait head of Emperor with diadem (Valentinian III?). From Rome or its environs. Mid-fifth century". laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
- ^ PLRE II p. 1138
- ^ a b Martindale, p. 1138
- ^ Martindale, p. 323
- ^ Ralph W. Mathisen, "Galla Placidia"
- ^ Homs, George. "Placidus Valentinianus "Valentinian III Emperor of Rome" (419–455) » Stamboom Homs » Genealogy Online". Genealogy Online. Retrieved 24 April 2020.
- ^ a b Blockley, p. 136
- ISBN 978-1-317-27807-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7486-6835-9.
- ^ Martindale, p. 1139
- ^ Blockley, p. 137
- ^ a b Bury, p. 272
- ^ a b Bury, p. 240
- ^ a b Heather, p. 5
- ^ Bury, p. 242
- ^ a b c Heather, p. 7
- ^ Heather, pp. 5–6
- ^ Bury, p. 243
- ^ Bury, p. 245
- ^ Bury, p. 247
- ^ Bury, p. 248
- ^ Bury, p. 249
- ^ Bury, pp. 250–251
- ^ Heather, p. 8
- ^ Heather, p. 9
- ^ Bury, p. 251
- ^ Bury, p. 254
- ^ a b c Heather, p. 11
- ^ Heather, pp. 11–12
- ^ Bury, p. 255
- ^ Bury, p. 258
- ^ Bury, p. 256
- ^ Heather, p. 12
- ^ a b c Heather, p. 14
- ^ a b c d Bury, p. 253
- ^ a b c Heather, p. 15
- ^ Bury, pp. 273–276
- ^ Bury, p. 290
- ^ Bury, p. 292
- ^ Bury, p. 293
- ^ Bury, pp. 294–295
- ^ Gillett 2001, pp. 131–167.
- ^ Heather, pp. 17–18
- ^ a b Heather, p. 18
- ^ a b Bury, p. 299
- ^ Priscus of Panium 2015, pp. 125–127.
- ^ Priscus of Panium 2015, p. 128.
- ^ Priscus of Panium 2015, p. 129.
- ^ Bury, pp. 323–324
- ^ Bury, pp. 324–325
- ^ Bury, p. 325
- ^ Ralph W. Mathisen, "Valentinian III (425–455 A.D)"
- ^ Gibbon 1825, Ch. XXXV "He faithfully imitated the hereditary weakness of his cousin and his two uncles, without inheriting the gentleness, the purity, the innocence, which alleviate in their characters the want of spirit and ability. Valentinian was less excusable, since he had passions without virtues: even his religion was questionable; and though he never deviated into the paths of heresy, he scandalised the pious Christians by his attachment to the profane arts of magic and divination.".
- ^ Bury 1924, 418–419 "Though he had ruled for thirty years, Valentinian had influenced the destinies of his empire even less than his uncle Honorius. He only flashed once into action, when, piqued by the presumption of Aetius in aspiring to connect himself with the imperial family, he struck him down. He thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne.".
Primary sources
- Priscus of Panium (2015). The Fragmentary History of Priscus: Attila, the Huns and the Roman Empire, AD 430–476. Volume 11 of Christian Roman Empire. Translated by John P. Given. Arx. ISBN 978-1-935228-14-1.
- Prosper Chronicles
- Jordanes, Gothic History see The Gothic History of Jordanes
- Sidonius Apollinaris
Secondary sources
- Blockley, R. C., The Dynasty of Theodosius in The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 (ed. Averil Cameron and Peter Garnsey) (1998), pp. 111–138
- Gibbon, Edward (1825). "Ch XXXV". The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 4: Complete in Eight Volumes. London: G. Cowie and Co. Poultry.
- S2CID 129373675.
- Heather, Peter, The Western Empire 425–76 in The Cambridge Ancient History: Late antiquity : empire and successors, A.D. 425–600 (ed. Averil Cameron and Bryan Ward-Perkins) (2000), pp. 1–32
- Martindale, J. R., The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Vol. II, Cambridge University Press (1980)
- Bury, J. B., A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, Vol. I (1889)
- Bury, J. B. (1924). The Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. I.
- Oost, Galla Placidia Augusta, University Press, Chicago, 1968.
- Jones, A.H.M., The Later Roman Empire A.D. 284–602, Volume One. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1986.
- Elia, Fibronia, Valentiniano III, CULC, Catania, 1999.
- McEvoy, Meaghan A. (2013), Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, A.D. 367–455. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
External links
- This list of Roman laws of the fourth century shows laws passed by Valentinian III relating to Christianity.
- Mathisen, Ralph, "Valentinian III", De Imperatoribus Romanis.