Vandalic language
Vandalic | |
---|---|
Native to | Spain, North Africa |
Extinct | 6th century AD |
Indo-European
| |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | xvn |
xvn | |
Glottolog | vand1245 |
Vandalic was the
Classification
Vandalic is traditionally classified as an East Germanic language,[3]: 4 [4] while the reasons for this classification are mostly historical and not linguistical.[1]: 7 Due to the perception of Vandalic as an East Germanic language, its reconstruction from onomastics recorded by Greek and Roman sources relies on Gothic forms. Therefore, it is difficult to assess whether or not Vandalic is closely related to Gothic.[1]: 9
Theories range from Gothic and Vandalic, together with
History
According to their own mythology, the Goths originally came from Scandinavia. It is therefore debated, whether Gothic and by extension Vandalic, came from Scandinavia or not. Linguistic evidence shows no specific relation between North Germanic and either Gothic or Vandalic. Still, it is possible that both the Goths and the Vandals migrated from Scandinavia southwards, where their respective languages started to diverge from Proto-Germanic.[6]
The linguistic urheimat of Vandalic probably lies south of the Baltic sea. They crossed the Rhine in the fifth century,[6] establishing themselves together with the Hasdingi and the Silingi in Gallaecia (northern Portugal and Galicia) and in southern Spain, following other Germanic and non-Germanic peoples (Visigoths, Alans and Suebi) in c. 410 before they moved to North Africa in the 430s. Their kingdom flourished in the early 6th century, but after their defeat in 534 they were placed under Byzantine administration.[7][8]: 1 The Vandalic language is presumed to still have been spoken at the time of the Byzantine conquest.[8]: 95 It likely disappeared before the end of the century.[4]
Attestation
Very little is known about the Vandalic language other than various phrases and a small number of personal names of Vandalic origin, mainly known from documents and coins.[1]: 7 [2]: 44 Most Vandalic names were recorded by native speakers of Latin or Greek, who might have misinterpreted phonemes or assimilated names to those common in their mother tongue.[2]
The regional name
In one inscription from the
The epigram De conviviis barbaris in the Latin Anthology, of North African origin and disputed date, contains a fragment in a Germanic language that some authors believe to be Vandalic,[13][2]: 49–50 although the fragment itself refers to the language as "Gothic". This may be because both languages were East Germanic and closely related; scholars have pointed out in this context[2]: 48 that Procopius refers to the Goths, Vandals, Visigoths, and Gepids as "Gothic nations" and opines that they "are all of the Arian faith, and have one language called Gothic".[14] The fragment reads:
Inter "eils" Goticum "scapia matzia ia drincan!" |
Amid the Gothic "Hail! Let's get [something to] eat and drink" Bacchus .An inebriated Muse may not stand on her feet. |
Other surviving Vandalic words are Baudus, "master" [16] and Vandalirice, "King of the Vandals".[17]
Phonology
The phonological features of Vandalic are similar to those of Gothic.[3]: 7
Vowels
The following vowel inventory is based on Wrede:[3]: 91–101
Front | Central | Back | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
short | long | short | long | short | long | ||
High
|
i | iː | u | uː | |||
Mid | eː | oː | |||||
Low
|
a |
- Vandalic /i/ was sometimes written ⟨e⟩ by Latin authors.[2]: 96
The Proto-Germanic long vowel */e:/ is often written in Vandalic names as ⟨e⟩ (Gunthimer, Geilimer), but it is also represented as ⟨i⟩ Geilamir, Vitarit.[3]: 91
The Proto-Germanic short vowel */e/ is often written as ⟨i⟩ in Vandalic[2]: 96 when it was not preceded by */r, h, w/. For example, Sigisteun contains -i because g precedes the vowel, but Beremut retains the *e since r precedes the vowel.[citation needed] It could either mean that */e/ turned into /i/ in Vandalic[18] or that the Vandalic short /e/ was interpreted as /i/ by non-natives.[2]: 97
Similar to Gothic, Vandalic does not seem to have i-umlaut. One example of items that demonstrate the lack of umlaut are names that contain the form *ari (< Proto-Germanic *harjaz 'army'): Ariarith, Arifridos, Guntari, Raginari vs. Old English here, the latter of which does show umlaut with the Proto-Germanic *a having shifted to e.[18]
Proto-Germanic */o:/ is written ⟨u⟩; Blumarit (compare Proto-Germanic *blōmô), Vilimut.[18] This could either mean that */o:/ turned into /u/ in Vandalic[18] or that it is a misinterpretation of the sound by Latin authors.[2]: 98 In Gothic documents, */o:/ is mostly written ⟨o⟩, but sometimes also ⟨u⟩.[2]: 98
The Proto-Germanic diphthong *eu tends to come down to Vandalic as eu. Take for example the form theudo- ('people'),[18] as opposed to the Gothic 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 (þiuda),[19] where it has changed to /iu/.[18]
The Proto-Germanic diphthong *ai is preserved as /ai/, but tends to become /ei/ later on. For example, the name Gaisericus changes to Geiseric in later documents.[18]
Consonants
The Vandalic consonant inventory according to Wrede.[3]: 101–109
Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Labiovelar | Glottal | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | ⟨m⟩ | ⟨n⟩ | ⟨ng⟩ | |||||||||
m | n | ŋ
|
||||||||||
Stop
|
⟨p⟩ | ⟨b⟩ | ⟨t⟩ | ⟨d⟩ | ⟨c⟩ | ⟨g⟩ | ⟨c⟩ | ⟨g⟩ | ||||
p | b | t | d | c | ɟ
|
k | ɡ
|
|||||
Fricative
|
⟨f⟩ | ⟨b⟩ | ⟨th⟩ | ⟨d⟩ | ⟨s⟩ | ⟨s, z⟩ | ? ⟨h⟩ | ? ⟨g⟩ | ? ⟨h⟩ | |||
ɸ
|
β
|
θ
|
ð
|
s
|
z
|
x | ɣ | h | ||||
Approximant
|
⟨l⟩ | ⟨i, j⟩ | ⟨w, v⟩ | |||||||||
l | j | w | ||||||||||
Trill | ⟨r⟩ | |||||||||||
r |
- It is unclear, how ⟨h⟩ was originally pronounced.[3]: 107–108 [2]: 101
- It is likely that [ɣ] occurred in Vandalic, but there is not enough evidence for the sound.[3]: 107
The Proto-Germanic */z/ is also preserved in the language as a
The word-initial /h/ inherited from Proto-Germanic does not consistently appear in Vandalic names recorded by Greek or Latin authors (e.g., the element ari in Arifridos and Guntari, from Proto-Germanic *harja- 'army'). Sometimes the same name appears with and without ⟨h⟩, depending on the author. However, royal names on Vandal coins use a conservative official spelling, with the ⟨h⟩ always being written.[18] This could point to either a loss of the sound represented by ⟨h⟩[18] or errors introduced by authors unfamiliar with the sound.[3]: 107 [2]: 100
The Proto-Germanic fricatives */þ/ and */ð/ often turned into /t/ or /d/, but there are also some names in which they were retained or otherwise represented distinctly: Thrasamundus, Guntha.[18]
Initial /w/ is sometimes written as ⟨gu⟩.[2]: 104 [18] This could be an issue of Latin spelling[2]: 104 or a point to the development of /gw/. Examples are Guiliaruna, < Proto-Germanic *wilja- and Guitifrida, < *wīti-.[18]
The Proto-Germanic cluster */-ww-/ can be found strengthened to /-g-/.[18]
The Proto-Germanic cluster */-tj-/ can become [tsj], as in matzia from Proto-Germanic *matjaną.[18]
Grammar
Very little is known about Vandalic grammar, but some things can be extracted from extant Vandalic material.[2]: 105
Morphology
The original Proto-Germanic *-z used to mark the nominative masculine singular in
The epithet Vandalirice 'king of the Vandals' gives possible attestation of a genitive plural ending -e (cf. Gothic -ē), albeit written as ⟨i⟩ within this form.[18][11] Old Germanic languages outside of East Germanic have -a (as in Old English and Old Norse)[21][22] or -o (as in Old Dutch or Old High German) as their equivalents of this ending instead;[23][24] compare Old English Wendla against the potential Vandalic form *Vandali.[citation needed]
Vocabulary
The tables below show various Vandalic words, phrases and forms that survive in (or as) names and various Latin texts. The majority of these were taken from Nicoletta Francovich Onesti .[18][clarification needed]
Attested Vandalic form |
Gothic cognate | Gloss of Vandalic form |
---|---|---|
arme | *𐌰𐍂𐌼𐌰𐌹 (*armai) (form of 𐌰𐍂𐌼𐌰𐌽 (arman)) |
'have mercy!' |
baudus (cf. -baudes) |
— | 'ruler, master' |
drincan | 𐌳𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌺𐌰𐌽 (drigkan) | 'drink (inf.)' |
eils | 𐌷𐌰𐌹𐌻𐍃 (hails) | 'hail!' (greeting) |
ia | 𐌾𐌰𐌷 (jah) | 'and' |
froia | 𐍆𐍂𐌰𐌿𐌾𐌰 (frauja) | 'lord, (the) Lord' |
matzia | 𐌼𐌰𐍄𐌾𐌰𐌽 (matjan) | 'eat (inf.), have one's meal (inf.)' |
scapia | *𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌾𐌰𐌽 (*skapjan), cf. 𐌲𐌰𐍃𐌺𐌰𐍀𐌾𐌰𐌽 (gaskapjan) |
'make, create' |
vandalirice | — | 'king of the Vandals' |
Attested Vandalic form(s) |
Gothic cognate | Proto-Germanic etymon |
Old English cognate
|
Gloss of Vandalic form |
---|---|---|---|---|
ari | 𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌹𐍃 (harjis) | *harjaz | here | 'army' |
baudes (cf. baudus) |
— | *baudiz | — | 'master, ruler' |
bere | 𐌱𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌰- (baira-) | *bera- | bera- | 'bear, carry' |
bluma | 𐌱𐌻𐍉𐌼𐌰 (blōma) | *blōmô | *blōma | 'bloom, flower' |
dagila | *𐌳𐌰𐌲𐌹𐌻𐌰 (*dagila) cf. 𐌳𐌰𐌲𐍃 (dags) |
*dag- | (dæg) | 'day (dim.)' |
frida frede feua |
*𐍆𐍂𐌹𐌸𐌿𐍃 (*friþus) | *friþu- | friþ(u) (cf. MnE †frith) |
'peace' |
geis | *𐌲𐌰𐌹𐍃 (*gais) cf. 𐌿𐍃𐌲𐌰𐌹𐍃𐌾𐌰𐌽 (usgaisjan) ('frighten, scare') |
*gaiza- | gār (cf. MnE garlic) |
'spear' |
gunda guntha |
— | *gunþjo | gūþ | 'battle' |
hildi-, -ild | 𐌷𐌹𐌻𐌳𐌹- (hildi-) | *hildjō | hild | 'battle' |
mir mer |
*𐌼𐌴𐍂𐍃 (*mērs) | *mēraz, *mērijaz | mǣre (cf. MnE ‡mere) |
'famous' |
munds | — | *mundō | mund (cf. MnE ‡mound) |
'defender' |
mut | 𐌼𐍉𐌸𐍃 (mōþs) ('mood, anger') |
*moda- | mōd (cf. MnE mood) |
'courage' |
oa | 𐌷𐌰𐌿𐌷𐍃 (hauhs) | *hauha- | hēah | 'high' |
osta hostra |
*𐌰𐌿𐍃𐍄𐍂𐌰- (*austra-) | *austra- | ēast | 'east' |
rit rith |
-𐍂𐌴𐌳𐌰𐌽 (-rēdan) ('to advise') |
*rēdaz | rǣd, rēd (cf. MnE †rede) |
'advice, counsel' |
rix ricus |
𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃 (reiks) | *rīk- | rice ('dominion') | 'king' |
runa | 𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰 (rūna) | *rūnō | rūn (cf. MnE †roun, rune) |
'secret' |
scarila | — | *skarō | scearu (cf. MnE share) |
'band (dim.)' |
sifila | 𐍃𐌹𐌱𐌾𐌰 (sibja) | *sibjō | sibb (cf. MnE sibling) |
'kindred (dim.)' |
sindi- | 𐍃𐌹𐌽𐌸𐍃 (sinþs) ('time, occurrence') |
*sinþa- | sīþ (cf. MnE send) |
'travel, path' |
trioua | 𐍄𐍂𐌹𐌲𐌲𐍅𐌰 (triggwa) | *triwwa | trīewu | 'loyal, true (f.)' |
teus | 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐍃 (þius) | *þewaz | þēow (cf. MnE †thew) |
'slave, servant' |
theudo | 𐌸𐌹𐌿𐌳𐌰 (þiuda) | *þeudō | þēod (cf. MnE †thede) |
'folk' |
vili, guilia | 𐍅𐌹𐌻𐌾𐌰 (wilja) | *wiljô | willa | 'will (noun)' |
uit- guit- |
*𐍅𐌴𐌹𐍄𐌹- (*weiti-) | *wīti- | — | 'struggle, combat' |
vult | 𐍅𐌿𐌻𐌸𐌿𐍃 (wulþus) | *wulþu- | wuldor | 'glory' |
Writing system
The few names on coins issued by the Vandalic kingdom were written in Latin script.[25]
See also
References
- ^ ISBN 978-3-8253-4752-9.
- ^ ISBN 9783110208153.
- ^ ISBN 9783111347615.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-11-025959-9.
- S2CID 247514646.
- ^ ISBN 9780191983719.
- ISBN 978-1-4443-3489-0.
- ^ ISBN 9781444318074.
- ISBN 9789004335745.
- ISBN 9781317178651.
- ^ JSTOR 40849030.
- ^ Steinacher, Roland (2008). "Gruppen und Identitäten. Gedanken zur Bezeichnung "vandalisch"" [Groups and identities. Thoughts on the term "Vandalic"] (PDF). In Berndt, Guido M.; Steinacher, Roland (eds.). Das Reich der Vandalen und seine (Vor-)Geschichten. 2005 (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 254. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2012.
- ^ "Inter eils Goticum (De conviviis barbaris)". Indogermanistik Wien: Quellentexte. Archived from the original on 17 October 2010.
- ^ Procopius of Caesarea, THE VANDALIC WAR I,2–8
- ^ Quoted in Magnús Snædal, 'The "Vandal" Epigram', in Filologia Germanica/Germanic Philology, 1 (2009), 181–213 (pp. 183–84).
- ^ Anthologia Latina No. 307, I. 5
- ^ Anthologia Latina No. 215, 523–543
- ^ ISBN 9788875751821.
- ^ Balg, Gerhard Hubert (1887). A comparative glossary of the Gothic language with especial reference to English and German. Halle: Max Niemeyer. p. 470.
- ISBN 978-3805340830.
- ^ Brunner, Karl (1965). Altenglische Grammatik [Anglo-Saxon grammar] (in German) (3 ed.). Tübingen: Niemeyer. p. 195.
- ISBN 3484101458.
- ISBN 3484106816.
- ISBN 3484106433.
- ^ Friedländer, Julius (1849). Die Münzen der Vandalen [The coins of the Vandals] (in German). Leipzig: Wigand. p. 6.
Further reading
- Wrede, Ferdinand (2018) [1886]. Über die Sprache der Wandalen [On the language of the Vandals] (in German). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. ISBN 9783111347615.
- Reichert, Hermann (2009). "Sprache und Namen der Wandalen in Afrika" [The language and names of the Vandals in Africa]. In Greule, Albrecht; Springer, Matthias (eds.). Namen des Frühmittelalters als Sprachliche Zeugnisse und als Geschichtsquellen [Names from the early Middle Ages as linguistical evidence and as historical sources] (in German). Berlin: W. de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110208153.
- Francovich Onesti, Nicoletta (2013). "Tracing the language of the Vandals". Goti e Vandali. Rome: Artemide. pp. 179–195. ISBN 9788875751821.
- Hartmann, Frederik (2020). The Vandalic language – origins and relationships. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter. ISBN 978-3-8253-4752-9.