Vannevar Bush
Vannevar Bush (/væˈniːvɑːr/ van-NEE-var; March 11, 1890 – June 28, 1974) was an American engineer, inventor and science administrator, who during World War II headed the U.S. Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), through which almost all wartime military R&D was carried out, including important developments in radar and the initiation and early administration of the Manhattan Project. He emphasized the importance of scientific research to national security and economic well-being, and was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation.
Bush joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at
During his career, Bush patented a string of his own inventions. He is known particularly for his engineering work on
Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) in 1938, and soon became its chairman. As chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC), and later director of OSRD, Bush coordinated the activities of some six thousand leading American scientists in the application of science to warfare. Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, and ensured that it received top priority from the highest levels of government. In Science, The Endless Frontier, his 1945 report to the president of the United States, Bush called for an expansion of government support for science, and he pressed for the creation of the National Science Foundation.
Early life and education
Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11, 1890.[2] He was the third child and only son of Richard Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood (née Paine), the daughter of a prominent Provincetown family.[3] He had two older sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry. The family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892,[4] and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909.[5]
He then attended
After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric (GE) in Schenectady, New York, for $14 a week.[9] As a "test man," he assessed equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GE's plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire broke out at the plant, Bush and the other test men were suspended. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and spent the 1915 summer break working at the Brooklyn Navy Yard as an electrical inspector. Bush was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics, a popular field at the time that led many to computer science. Bush preferred to quit rather than study a subject that did not interest him.[10]
Bush subsequently enrolled in the
Early engineering activities
Bush accepted a job with Tufts, where he became involved with the American Radio and Research Corporation (AMRAD), which began broadcasting music from the campus on March 8, 1916. The station owner, Harold Power, hired him to run the company's laboratory, at a salary greater than that which Bush drew from Tufts. In 1917, following the United States' entry into World War I, he went to work with the
Bush left Tufts in 1919, although he remained employed by AMRAD, and joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he worked under Dugald C. Jackson. In 1922, he collaborated with fellow MIT professor William H. Timbie on Principles of Electrical Engineering, an introductory textbook. AMRAD's lucrative contracts from World War I had been cancelled, and Bush attempted to reverse the company's fortunes by developing a thermostatic switch invented by Al Spencer, an AMRAD technician, on his own time. AMRAD's management was not interested in the device, but had no objection to its sale. Bush found backing from Laurence K. Marshall and Richard S. Aldrich to create the Spencer Thermostat Company, which hired Bush as a consultant. The new company soon had revenues in excess of a million dollars.[15] It merged with General Plate Company to form Metals & Controls Corporation in 1931, and with Texas Instruments in 1959. Texas Instruments sold it to Bain Capital in 2006, and it became a separate company again as Sensata Technologies in 2010.[16]
In 1924, Bush and Marshall teamed up with physicist Charles G. Smith, who had invented a
Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a
Bush taught
I write as an engineer and do not pretend to be a mathematician. I lean for support, and expect always to lean, upon the mathematician, just as I must lean upon the chemist, the physician, or the lawyer. Norbert Wiener has patiently guided me around many a mathematical pitfall ... he has written an appendix to this text on certain mathematical points. I did not know an engineer and a mathematician could have such good times together. I only wish that I could get the real vital grasp of mathematics that he has of the basic principles of physics.
Parry Moon and Stratton were acknowledged, as was M.S. Vallarta who "wrote the first set of class notes which I used."[21]
An offshoot of the work at MIT was the beginning of
The reform of MIT's administration began in 1930, with the appointment of
The companies Bush helped to found and the technologies he brought to the market made him financially secure, so he was able to pursue academic and scientific studies that he felt made the world better in the years before and after World War II.
World War II
Carnegie Institution for Science
In May 1938, Bush accepted a prestigious appointment as president of the
Bush clashed over leadership of the institute with
Bush wanted the institute to concentrate on
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
On August 23, 1938, Bush was appointed to the
National Defense Research Committee
During World War I, Bush had become aware of poor cooperation between civilian scientists and the military. Concerned about the lack of coordination in scientific research and the requirements of defense mobilization, Bush proposed the creation of a general directive agency in the
With Bush as chairman, the NDRC was functioning even before the agency was officially established by order of the
Bush was fond of saying that "if he made any important contribution to the war effort at all, it would be to get the Army and Navy to tell each other what they were doing."
On August 31, 1940, Bush met with
In September 1940, Norbert Wiener approached Bush with a proposal to build a digital computer. Bush declined to provide NDRC funding for it on the grounds that he did not believe that it could be completed before the end of the war. The supporters of digital computers were disappointed at the decision, which they attributed to a preference for outmoded analog technology. In June 1943, the Army provided $500,000 to build the computer, which became ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic computer. Having delayed its funding, Bush's prediction proved correct as ENIAC was not completed until December 1945, after the war had ended.[44] His critics saw his attitude as a failure of vision.[45]
Office of Scientific Research and Development
On June 28, 1941, Roosevelt established the
Bush's method of management at the OSRD was to direct overall policy, while delegating supervision of divisions to qualified colleagues and letting them do their jobs without interference. He attempted to interpret the mandate of the OSRD as narrowly as possible to avoid overtaxing his office and to prevent duplicating the efforts of other agencies. Bush would often ask: "Will it help to win a war; this war?"[52] Other challenges involved obtaining adequate funds from the president and Congress and determining apportionment of research among government, academic, and industrial facilities.[52] His most difficult problems, and also greatest successes, were keeping the confidence of the military, which distrusted the ability of civilians to observe security regulations and devise practical solutions,[53] and opposing conscription of young scientists into the armed forces. This became especially difficult as the army's manpower crisis really began to bite in 1944.[54] In all, the OSRD requested deferments for some 9,725 employees of OSRD contractors, of which all but 63 were granted.[54] In his obituary, The New York Times described Bush as "a master craftsman at steering around obstacles, whether they were technical or political or bull-headed generals and admirals."[55]
Proximity fuze
In August 1940, the NDRC began work on a
To preserve the secret of the proximity fuze, its use was initially permitted only over water, where a dud round could not fall into enemy hands. In late 1943, the Army obtained permission to use the weapon over land. The proximity fuze proved particularly effective against the
The German V-1 flying bomb demonstrated a serious omission in OSRD's portfolio: guided missiles. While the OSRD had some success developing unguided rockets, it had nothing comparable to the V-1, the
Manhattan Project
Bush played a critical role in persuading the United States government to undertake a crash program to create an
Bush met with Roosevelt and Vice President
In March 1942, Bush sent a report to Roosevelt outlining work by
A week later, on June 23rd, President Roosevelt sent this one-sentence memo back to Bush: "Do you have the money?" [74]
Bush soon became dissatisfied with the dilatory way the project was run, with its indecisiveness over the selection of sites for the pilot plants. He was particularly disturbed at the allocation of an AA-3 priority, which would delay completion of the pilot plants by three months. Bush complained about these problems to Bundy and
At the meeting with Roosevelt on October 9, 1941, Bush advocated cooperating with the United Kingdom, and he began corresponding with his British counterpart, Sir
Bush appeared on the cover of Time magazine on April 3, 1944.
Before the end of the Second World War, Bush and Conant had foreseen and sought to avoid a possible nuclear arms race. Bush proposed international scientific openness and information sharing as a method of self-regulation for the scientific community, to prevent any one political group gaining a scientific advantage. Before nuclear research became public knowledge, Bush used the development of biological weapons as a model for the discussion of similar issues, an "opening wedge". He was less successful in promoting his ideas in peacetime with President Harry Truman, than he had been under wartime conditions with Roosevelt.[86][87]
In "
Post-war years
Memex concept
Bush introduced the concept of the
After thinking about the potential of augmented memory for several years, Bush set out his thoughts at length in "As We May Think", predicting that "wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified".[88] "As We May Think" was published in the July 1945 issue of The Atlantic. A few months later, Life magazine published a condensed version of "As We May Think", accompanied by several illustrations showing the possible appearance of a memex machine and its companion devices.[90]
Shortly after "As We May Think" was originally published,
"As We May Think" has turned out to be a visionary and influential essay.[94] In their introduction to a paper discussing information literacy as a discipline, Bill Johnston and Sheila Webber wrote in 2005 that:
Bush's paper might be regarded as describing a microcosm of the information society, with the boundaries tightly drawn by the interests and experiences of a major scientist of the time, rather than the more open knowledge spaces of the 21st century. Bush provides a core vision of the importance of information to industrial / scientific society, using the image of an "information explosion" arising from the unprecedented demands on scientific production and technological application of World War II. He outlines a version of information science as a key discipline within the practice of scientific and technical knowledge domains. His view encompasses the problems of information overload and the need to devise efficient mechanisms to control and channel information for use.[95]
Bush was concerned that information overload might inhibit the research efforts of scientists. Looking to the future, he predicted a time when "there is a growing mountain of research. But there is increased evidence that we are being bogged down today as specialization extends. The investigator is staggered by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other workers."[88]
National Science Foundation
The OSRD continued to function actively until some time after the end of hostilities, but by 1946–1947 it had been reduced to a minimal staff charged with finishing work remaining from the war period; Bush was calling for its closure even before the war had ended. During the war, the OSRD had issued contracts as it had seen fit, with just eight organizations accounting for half of its spending. MIT was the largest to receive funds, with its obvious ties to Bush and his close associates. Efforts to obtain legislation exempting the OSRD from the usual government conflict of interest regulations failed, leaving Bush and other OSRD principals open to prosecution. Bush therefore pressed for OSRD to be wound up as soon as possible.[96]
With its dissolution, Bush and others had hoped that an equivalent peacetime government research and development agency would replace the OSRD. Bush felt that basic research was important to national survival for both military and commercial reasons, requiring continued government support for science and technology; technical superiority could be a deterrent to future enemy aggression. In Science, The Endless Frontier, a July 1945 report to the president, Bush maintained that basic research was "the pacemaker of technological progress". "New products and new processes do not appear full-grown," Bush wrote in the report. "They are founded on new principles and new conceptions, which in turn are painstakingly developed by research in the purest realms of science!"[97] In Bush's view, the "purest realms" were the physical and medical sciences; he did not propose funding the social sciences.[98] In Science, The Endless Frontier, science historian Daniel Kevles later wrote, Bush "insisted upon the principle of Federal patronage for the advancement of knowledge in the United States, a departure that came to govern Federal science policy after World War II."[99]
In July 1945, the Kilgore bill was introduced in Congress, proposing the appointment and removal of a single science administrator by the president, with emphasis on applied research, and a patent clause favoring a government monopoly. In contrast, the competing Magnuson bill was similar to Bush's proposal to vest control in a panel of top scientists and civilian administrators with the executive director appointed by them. The Magnuson bill emphasized basic research and protected private patent rights.[100] A compromise Kilgore–Magnuson bill of February 1946 passed the Senate but expired in the House because Bush favored a competing bill that was a virtual duplicate of Magnuson's original bill.[101] A Senate bill was introduced in February 1947 to create the National Science Foundation (NSF) to replace the OSRD. This bill favored most of the features advocated by Bush, including the controversial administration by an autonomous scientific board. The bill passed the Senate and the House, but was pocket vetoed by Truman on August 6, on the grounds that the administrative officers were not properly responsible to either the president or Congress.[102] The OSRD was abolished without a successor organization on December 31, 1947.[103]
Without a National Science Foundation, the military stepped in, with the Office of Naval Research (ONR) filling the gap. The war had accustomed many scientists to working without the budgetary constraints imposed by pre-war universities.[104] Bush helped create the Joint Research and Development Board (JRDB) of the Army and Navy, of which he was chairman. With passage of the National Security Act on July 26, 1947, the JRDB became the Research and Development Board (RDB). Its role was to promote research through the military until a bill creating the National Science Foundation finally became law.[105] By 1953, the Department of Defense was spending $1.6 billion a year on research; physicists were spending 70 percent of their time on defense related research, and 98 percent of the money spent on physics came from either the Department of Defense or the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which took over from the Manhattan Project on January 1, 1947.[106] Legislation to create the National Science Foundation finally passed through Congress and was signed into law by Truman in 1950.[107]
The authority that Bush had as chairman of the RDB was much different from the power and influence he enjoyed as director of OSRD and would have enjoyed in the agency he had hoped would be independent of the Executive branch and Congress. He was never happy with the position and resigned as chairman of the RDB after a year, but remained on the oversight committee.[108] He continued to be skeptical about rockets and missiles, writing in his 1949 book, Modern Arms and Free Men, that intercontinental ballistic missiles would not be technically feasible "for a long time to come ... if ever".[109]
Panels and boards
With Truman as president, men like
Bush continued to serve on the NACA through 1948 and expressed annoyance with aircraft companies for delaying development of a turbojet engine because of the huge expense of research and development as well as retooling from older piston engines.[115] He was similarly disappointed with the automobile industry, which showed no interest in his proposals for more fuel-efficient engines. General Motors told him that "even if it were a better engine, [General Motors] would not be interested in it."[116] Bush likewise deplored trends in advertising. "Madison Avenue believes", he said, "that if you tell the public something absurd, but do it enough times, the public will ultimately register it in its stock of accepted verities."[117]
From 1947 to 1962, Bush was on the board of directors for
Final years and death
After suffering a stroke, Bush died in
Awards and honors
- Bush was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1925.[124]
- Bush was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1934.[125]
- Bush was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1937.[126]
- Bush received the Edison Medal in 1943, "for his contribution to the advancement of electrical engineering, particularly through the development of new applications of mathematics to engineering problems, and for his eminent service to the nation in guiding the war research program."[127]
- In 1945, Bush was awarded the National Academy of Sciences.[128]
- In 1949, he received the IRI Medal from the Industrial Research Institute in recognition of his contributions as a leader of research and development.[120]
- President Truman awarded Bush the Medal of Merit with bronze oak leaf cluster in 1948.
- President Lyndon Johnson awarded him the National Medal of Science in 1963.[129]
- President Leslie R. Groves with the unique Atomic Pioneers Award from the Atomic Energy Commission in February 1970.[130]
- Bush was made a Legion of Honor in 1955.[120]
In 1980, the National Science Foundation created the Vannevar Bush Award to honor his contributions to public service.[131] The Vannevar Bush papers are located in several places, with the majority of the collection held at the Library of Congress. Additional papers are held by the MIT Institute Archives and Special Collections, the Carnegie Institution, and the National Archives and Records Administration.[132][133][134] As of 2023[update], the Vannevar Bush Distinguished Professor is Michael Levin, an American developmental and synthetic biologist at Tufts University.[135]
Portrayals
In the 1947 film The Beginning or the End, Bush is played by Jonathan Hale.
Bush is played by Matthew Modine in Christopher Nolan's 2023 film Oppenheimer.[137]
See also
Bibliography
(complete list of published papers: Wiesner 1979, pp. 107–117).
- Bush, Vannevar; Timbie, William H. (1922). Principles of Electrical Engineering. John Wiley & Sons – via Internet Archive.
- Bush, Vannevar; OCLC 2167931.
- —— (1945). Science, the Endless Frontier: a Report to the President. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. OCLC 1594001. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
- —— (1946). Endless Horizons. Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press. OCLC 1152058.
- —— (1949). Modern Arms and Free Men: a Discussion of the Role of Science in Preserving Democracy. New York: Simon and Schuster. OCLC 568075.
- Bush, Vannevar (1967). Science Is Not Enough. New York: Morrow. OCLC 520108.
- Bush, Vannevar (1970). Pieces of the Action. New York: Morrow. OCLC 93366.
Notes
- ^ "Vannevar Bush". Computer Science Tree. Retrieved November 8, 2015.
- ISBN 978-1-59339-492-9.
- ISBN 978-1-5011-9646-1.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 22.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 25–27.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush's profile tracer". National Museum of American History. Retrieved March 12, 2015.
- ^ Wiesner 1979, pp. 90–91.
- ISBN 978-1-5011-9646-1.
- ^ a b c d Zachary 1997, pp. 28–32.
- ^ Puchta 1996, p. 58.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 41, 245.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 33–38.
- ^ Owens 1991, p. 15.
- ^ a b Zachary 1997, pp. 39–43.
- ^ "History of Our Company". Sensata Technologies. Archived from the original on June 2, 2014. Retrieved June 14, 2014.
- ^ "Raytheon Company". International Directory of Company Histories. St. James Press. 2001. Retrieved May 31, 2012.
- ^ Owens 1991, pp. 6–11.
- ^ Brittain 2008, pp. 2132–2133.
- ^ Wiesner 1979, p. 106.
- .
- ^ "Claude E. Shannon, an oral history conducted in 1982 by Robert Price". IEEE Global History Network. New Brunswick, New Jersey: IEEE History Center. 1982. Retrieved July 14, 2011.
- ^ "MIT Professor Claude Shannon dies; was founder of digital communications". MIT News. February 27, 2001. Retrieved May 28, 2012.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 76–78.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 55–56.
- ^ a b Zachary 1997, pp. 83–85.
- ^ a b c Zachary 1997, pp. 91–95.
- ^ Sullivan 2016, p. 69.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 93.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 94.
- ^ a b Zachary 1997, pp. 98–99.
- ^ Evans, Ryan Thomas (2010). "Aviation at sunrise: shortcomings of the American Air Forces in North Africa during TORCH compared to the Royal Air Force on Malta, 1941–1942". WWU Masters Thesis Collection. Western Washington University. pp. 34–38. Paper 76. Retrieved March 12, 2015.
- ^ Roland 1985, p. 427.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 104–112.
- ^ a b Zachary 1997, p. 129.
- ^ Stewart 1948, p. 7.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 119.
- ^ Stewart 1948, pp. 10–12.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 106.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 125.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 124–127.
- ^ Conant 2002, pp. 168–169, 182.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 132–134.
- ^ Honeywell, Inc. v. Sperry Rand Corp., 180 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 673, p. 20, finding 1.1.3 (U.S. District Court for the District of Minnesota, Fourth Division 1973) ("... the ENIAC machine was being operated rather than tested after 1 December 1945.").
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 266–267.
- ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D. (June 28, 1941). "Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development". The American Presidency Project. Archived from the original on December 1, 2021. Retrieved June 28, 2011.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 127–129.
- ^ Stewart 1948, p. 189.
- ^ Stewart 1948, p. 185.
- ^ Stewart 1948, p. 190.
- ^ Stewart 1948, p. 322.
- ^ a b Zachary 1997, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 124–125.
- ^ a b Stewart 1948, p. 276.
- ^ Reinholds, Robert. "Dr. Vannevar Bush is dead at 84; Dr. Vannevar Bush, who marshaled nation's wartime technology and ushered in Atomic Age, is dead at 84". GN. The New York Times. p. 1.
- ^ a b Furer 1959, pp. 346–347.
- ^ "Section T "Proximity Fuze" Records, 1940–[1999] (bulk 1941–1943)". Carnegie Institution of Washington. Retrieved June 7, 2012.
- ^ Christman 1998, pp. 86–91.
- ^ Furer 1959, p. 348.
- ^ a b Furer 1959, p. 349.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 176, 180–183.
- ^ Baxter 1946, p. 241.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 179.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 177.
- ^ Bush 1970, p. 307.
- ^ Goldberg 1992, p. 451.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 25.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 45–46.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 203.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 51, 71–72.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 61.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 72–75.
- ^ Edmondson, Catie (January 18, 2024). "A A Reporter's Journey Into How the U.S. Funded the Bomb". The New York Times Company. Retrieved January 22, 2024.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 78–83.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 259–260.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 264–270.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 211.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 276–280.
- ^ "Dr. Vannevar Bush". Time. Vol. XLIII, no. 14. April 3, 1944. Archived from the original on December 14, 2008.
- ^ Bush 1970, pp. 114–116.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 344–345.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 360–361.
- ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 378.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 280.
- ^ Meyer, Michal (2018). "The Rise and Fall of Vannevar Bush". Distillations. 4 (2). Science History Institute: 6–7. Retrieved August 20, 2018.
- ^ Wellerstein, Alex (July 25, 2012). "Biological Warfare: Vannevar Bush's "Entering Wedge" (1944)". Restricted Data. Retrieved August 21, 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f Bush, Vannevar (July 1945). "As We May Think". The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-520-26273-7.
- ^ Bush, Vannevar (September 10, 1945). "As We May Think". Life. pp. 112–124. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
- ^ "A Lifetime Pursuit". Doug Engelbart Institute. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ^ "Hypertext". Doug Engelbart Institute. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ^ Crawford 1996, p. 671.
- ^ Buckland 1992, p. 284.
- ^ Johnston & Webber 2006, p. 109.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 246–249.
- ^ "Science the Endless Frontier: A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development". National Science Foundation. July 1945. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- ^ Greenberg 2001, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Greenberg 2001, p. 52.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 253–256.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 328.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 332.
- ^ "Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD)". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved May 21, 2012.
- ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 397.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 318–323.
- ^ Hershberg 1993, pp. 305–309.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 368–369.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 336–345.
- ^ Hershberg 1993, p. 393.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 330–331.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 346–347.
- ^ Zachary 1997, pp. 348–349.
- ^ S2CID 154778522.
- ^ a b Zachary 1997, pp. 377–378.
- ^ Dawson 1991, p. 80.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 387.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 386.
- ^ a b Wiesner 1979, p. 108.
- ^ Werth 1994, p. 132.
- ^ a b c Wiesner 1979, p. 107.
- ^ Wiesner 1979, p. 105.
- ^ "Dennis 1974 Annual Town Reports" (PDF). Retrieved June 14, 2012.
- ^ Zachary 1997, p. 407.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. February 9, 2023. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush". www.nasonline.org. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved May 22, 2023.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush". IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved July 25, 2011.
- ^ "Public Welfare Award". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved February 14, 2011.
- ^ "The President's National Medal of Science". National Science Foundation. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- ^ Nixon, Richard (February 27, 1970). "Remarks on Presenting the Atomic Pioneers Award". The American Presidency Project. Archived from the original on February 1, 2013. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush Award". National Science Foundation. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush Papers, 1921–1975". Manuscript Collection. MIT Institute Archives & Special Collections. MC 78. Retrieved May 26, 2012.
- ^ "Vannevar Bush Papers 1901–1974". Library of Congress. Retrieved May 21, 2012.
- ^ "Carnegie Institution of Washington Administration Records, 1890–2001". Carnegie Institution of Washington. Retrieved May 21, 2012.
- ^ "Tufts University: The Levin Lab". Retrieved December 13, 2023.
- ^ Wiesner 1979, p. 101.
- ^ Moss, Molly; Knight, Lewis (July 22, 2023). "Oppenheimer cast: Full list of actors in Christopher Nolan film". Radio Times. Retrieved July 24, 2023.
References
- OCLC 1084158.
- Brittain, James E. (December 2008). "Electrical Engineering Hall of Fame: Vannevar Bush". Proceedings of the IEEE. 96 (12): 2131. .
- .
- OCLC 48966735.
- Christman, Albert B. (1998). Target Hiroshima: Deak Parsons and the Creation of the Atomic Bomb. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. OCLC 38257982.
- Crawford, T. Hugh (Winter 1996). "Paterson, Memex, and Hypertext". American Literary History. 8 (4): 665–682. JSTOR 490117.
- Dawson, Virginia P. (1991). Engines and Innovation: Lewis Laboratory and American Propulsion Technology. Scientific and Technical Information Division. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. OCLC 22665627. Archived from the originalon November 13, 2004. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
- OCLC 1915787.
- Goldberg, Stanley (September 1992). "Inventing a climate of opinion: Vannevar Bush and the Decision to Build the Bomb". Isis. 83 (3): 429–452. S2CID 143454986.
- OCLC 45661689.
- OCLC 27678159.
- OCLC 637004643. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
- Johnston, Bill; Webber, Sheila (2006). "As We May Think: Information Literacy as a Discipline for the information age". Research Strategies. 20 (3): 108–121. ISSN 0734-3310.
- Owens, Larry (1991). "Vannevar Bush and the Differential Analyzer: The text and context of and early computer". In Nyce, James M.; Kahn, Paul (eds.). From Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the Mind's Machine. Boston, MA: Academic Press. pp. 3–38. OCLC 24870981.
- Puchta, Susann (Winter 1996). "On the Role of Mathematics and Mathematical Knowledge in the Invention of Vannevar Bush's Early Analog Computers". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 18 (4): 49–59. .
- Roland, Alex (1985). Model Research. Scientific and Technical Information Branch. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. SP-4103. Archived from the original on November 13, 2004. Retrieved July 1, 2012.
- Stewart, Irvin (1948). Organizing Scientific Research for War: The administrative history of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company. OCLC 500138898. Retrieved April 1, 2012.
- Sullivan, Neil J. (2016). The Prometheus Bomb: The Manhattan Project and Government in the Dark. Lincoln: ISBN 978-1-61234-815-5.
- OCLC 79828818. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
- Werth, Barry (1994). The Billion-Dollar Molecule: One Company's Quest for the Perfect Drug. New York: Simon & Schuster. OCLC 28721852.
- Zachary, G. Pascal (1997). OCLC 36521020.
External links
- "Vannevar Bush papers, 1901–1974". Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress.
- "Vannevar Bush papers, 1910–1988". Tufts University. hdl:10427/57028.
- Vannevar Bush Papers, MC-0078. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Distinctive Collections, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
- "MIT Web Museum".
- "1995 MIT / Brown U. Vannevar Bush Symposium". complete video archive.
- "The Vannevar Bush Index". Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum.
- Video demonstrating the ideas behind the Memex system on YouTube
- "Pictures of Vannevar Bush". Tufts Digital Library.
- "Biographical Memoir" (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.
- "Machine Solves Problems Too Deep For Brain", a short article on the Product Integraph from Popular Mechanics, Volume 49, Issue 1 (1928).