Vedic period

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Vedic India
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Early Vedic period
Panchala, Videha
Late Vedic period
Iron Age India
Datesc. 1100 – c. 500 BCE
Preceded byEarly Vedic culture
Followed byHaryanka dynasty, Mahajanapadas

The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE), is the period in the late

Indo-Aryan tribes. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical[1][note 1] and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred.[2]

The Vedas were composed and

Late Bronze Age society centred in the Punjab, organised into tribes rather than kingdoms, and primarily sustained by a pastoral
way of life.

Around c. 1200–1000 BCE the Aryan culture spread eastward to the fertile western

mahajanapadas) as well as śramaṇa movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy.[6]

The Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Indo-Aryan

History

Origins

Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry into two subcontinents—Europe and South Asia, and arrival in the subcontinent as Indo-Aryans[9]

The early Vedic age is historically dated to the second half of the second millennium BCE.[10] Historically, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which occurred around 1900 BCE,[11][12] groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley.[13] The Indo-Aryans represented a sub-group that diverged from other Indo-Iranian tribes at the Andronovo horizon[14] before the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE.[15][note 4] The Indo-Iranians originated in the Sintashta culture, from which arose the subsequent Andronovo horizon.[14] The Indo-Aryans migrated through the adjacent BactriaMargiana area (present-day northern Afghanistan) to northwest India,[16][note 5] followed by the rise of the Iranian Yaz culture at c. 1500 BCE, and the Iranian migrations into Iran at c. 800 BCE.

Copper Hoard and PGW cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan
movements.

Some Indian writers and archaeologists have opposed the notion of a migration of Indo-Aryans into India, and argued for an indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans.[17][18] In this view, "the Indian civilization must be viewed as an unbroken tradition that goes back to the earliest period of the Sindhu-Sarasvati (or Indus) tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE)."[19] Though popular in India, and reflecting Indian views on Indian history and religion,[20] the idea of a purely indigenous origin of the Indo-Aryans is outside the academic mainstream.[note 6]

The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the

Zeravshan River (present-day Uzbekistan) and (present-day) Tajikistan.[28] It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements",[28] which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices" from the Bactria–Margiana culture,[29] including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.[16][note 5]

Early Vedic period (c. 1500 BCE – c. 1000 BCE)

Cremation urn of the Gandhara grave culture (c. 1200 BCE), associated with Vedic material culture

The Rigveda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. It describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata). Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, scornful or abusive. Other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. However, some modern scholars such as Asko Parpola connect the Dasas and Dasyus to Iranian tribes Dahae and Dahyu and believe that Dasas and Dasyus were early Indo-Aryan immigrants who arrived into the subcontinent before the Vedic Aryans.[30][31] Likewise, Bronkhorst has argued that the central Ganges Plain was dominated by a related but non-Vedic Indo-Aryan culture,[32] a difference also noted by Samuel.[33]

Accounts of military conflicts in between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rigveda. Most notable of such conflicts was the

Punjab.[37] Division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war.[38][unreliable source?] The confederation of tribes tried to inundate the Bharatas by opening the embankments of Ravi, yet Sudas emerged victorious in the Battle of Ten Kings.[39] The Bharatas and the Purus merged into a new tribe, the Kuru, after the war.[37]

Later Vedic period (c. 1000 – c. 600 BCE)

Pottery of the Painted Grey Ware culture (c. 1000–600 BCE), associated with Vedic material culture

After the 12th century BCE, as the Rigveda had taken its final form, the Vedic society, which is associated with the Kuru-Panchala region but were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India,[40] transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India.[39] Possession of horses remained an important priority of Vedic leaders and a remnant of the nomadic lifestyle,[41] resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain this supply as horses needed for cavalry and sacrifice could not be bred in India.[42] The Gangetic plains had remained out of bounds to the Vedic tribes because of thick forest cover. After 1000 BCE, the use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread and the jungles could be cleared with ease. This enabled the Vedic Aryans to extend their settlements into the western area of the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.[43] Many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units.[44]

The Vedic religion was further developed with the emergence of the Kuru kingdom, systematising its religious literature and developing the Śrauta ritual.[45][46][47] It is associated with the Painted Grey Ware culture (c.1200–600 BCE), which did not expand east of the Ganga-Yamuya Doab.[40] It differed from the related, yet markedly different, culture of the Central Ganges region, which was associated with the Northern Black Polished Ware and the Mahajanapadas of Kosala and Magadha.[48]

In this period the

Hindu culture were completed.[54]

falcon shaped altar used for Agnicayana, an elaborate Śrauta ritual originating from the Kuru Kingdom,[45]
c. 1000 BCE

The

The most well-known of the new religious sacrifices that arose in this period were the

The Kuru kingdom declined after its defeat by the non-Vedic

Gargi Vachaknavi;[8] Panchala also remained prominent during this period, under its king Pravahana Jaivali.[57]

Towards urbanization

By the 6th century BCE, the political units consolidated into large kingdoms called

Kausambi. The Narmada River and parts of North Western Deccan formed the southern limits.[60][61] The newly formed states struggled for supremacy and started displaying imperial ambitions.[62]

The end of the Vedic period is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of

shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) objected the self-imposed authority and orthodoxy of the intruding Brahmins and their Vedic scriptures and ritual.[6][65] According to Bronkhorst, the sramana culture arose in "Greater Magadha," which was Indo-European, but not Vedic. In this culture, kshatriyas were placed higher than Brahmins, and it rejected Vedic authority and rituals.[32][66]

Culture

Society

While Vedic society was relatively egalitarian in the sense that a distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or

castes was absent,[67][68] the Vedic period saw the emergence of a hierarchy of social classes.[4][5] Political hierarchy was determined by rank, where rājan (tribal king or chieftain) and rājanya (tribal nobility) stood at the top, the viś (the common people) in the middle, and the dāsa and dasyu (non-Indo-Aryan servants) at the bottom.[68][69] The words Brahamana and Kshatriya occur in various family books of the Rigveda, but they are not associated with the term varna. The words Vaishya and Shudra are absent. Verses of the Rigveda, such as 3.44–45, indicate the absence of strict social hierarchy and the existence of social mobility:[30]

O, Indra, fond of soma, would you make me the protector of people, or would you make me a king, would you make me a sage who has drunk soma, would you impart to me endless wealth.

The institution of marriage was important and different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny and polyandry are mentioned in the Rigveda. Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans. Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared.[68] The wife enjoyed a respectable position.[70] People consumed milk, milk products, grains, fruits and vegetables. Meat eating is mentioned; however, cows are labeled aghnya (not to be killed). Clothes of cotton, wool and animal skin were worn.[68] Soma and sura were popular drinks in the Vedic society, of which soma was sanctified by religion. Flute (vana), lute (vina), harp, cymbals and drums were the musical instruments played and a heptatonic scale was used.[70] Dancing, dramas, chariot racing and gambling were other popular pastimes.[68]

The emergence of monarchical states in the later Vedic age led to a distancing of the rajan from the people and the emergence of a varna hierarchy. The society was divided into four social groups—Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The later Vedic texts fixed social boundaries, roles, status and ritual purity for each of the groups. The Shatapatha Brahmana associates the Brahmana with purity of parentage, good conduct, glory, teaching or protecting people; Kshatriya with strength, fame, ruling, and warfare; Vaishya with material prosperity and production-related activities such as cattle rearing and agriculture; Shudras with the service of the higher varnas. The effects of Rajasuya sacrifice depended on the varna of the sacrificer. Rajasuya endowed Brahmana with lustre, Kshatriya with valour, Vaishya with procreative power and Shudra with stability. The hierarchy of the top three varnas is ambiguous in the later Vedic texts. Panchavamsha Brahmana and verse 13.8.3.11 of the Shatapatha Brahmana place Kshatriya over Brahmana and Vaishya, whereas, verse 1.1.4.12 places Brahmana and Vaishya over the Kshatriya and Shudra. The Purusha Sukta visualised the four varnas as hierarchical, but inter-related parts of an organic whole.[71] Despite the increasing social stratification in the later Vedic times, hymns like Rigveda IX.112 suggest some amount of social mobility: "I am a reciter of hymns, my father a physician, and my mother grinds (corn) with stones. We desire to obtain wealth in various actions."[72][73]

Household became an important unit in the later Vedic age. The variety of households of the Vedic era gave way to an idealised household which was headed by a grihapati. The relations between husband and wife, father and son were hierarchically organised and the women were relegated to subordinate and docile roles. Polygyny was more common than polyandry and texts like Tattiriya Samhita indicate taboos around menstruating women. Various professions women took to are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. Women tended to cattle, milked cows, carded wool; were weavers, dyers, and corn grinders. Women warriors such as Vishpala, who lost a leg in battle, are mentioned. Two female philosophers are mentioned in the Upanishads.[74] Patrick Olivelle, in his translation of the Upanishads, writes that "the fact that these women are introduced without any attempt to justify or to explain how women could be engaged in theological matters suggests the relatively high social and religious position of at least women of some social strata during this period."[75]

Political organisation

Vedic weaponry
Ancient Indian antennae sword; metalwork, 1500–500 BCE
Ancient Indian axe blade, 1500–1000 BCE

Early Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The chief of a tribe was called a rajan. The autonomy of the rajan was restricted by the tribal councils called sabha and samiti. The two bodies were, in part, responsible for the governance of the tribe. The rajan could not accede to the throne without their approval. The distinction between the two bodies is not clear.

indologist, theorises that sabha was a meeting of great men in the tribe, whereas, samiti was a meeting of all free tribesmen. Some tribes had no hereditary chiefs and were directly governed by the tribal councils. Rajan had a rudimentary court which was attended by courtiers (sabhasad) and chiefs of sects (gramani). The main responsibility of the rajan was to protect the tribe. He was aided by several functionaries, including the purohita (chaplain), the senani (army chief), dutas (envoys) and spash (spies).[76] Purohita performed ceremonies and spells for success in war and prosperity in peace.[77]

In the later Vedic period, the tribes had consolidated into small kingdoms, which had a capital and a rudimentary administrative system.[60] To aid in governing these new states, the kings and their Brahmin priests arranged Vedic hymns into collections and developed a new set of rituals (the now orthodox Śrauta rituals) to strengthen the emerging social hierarchy.[45] The rajan was seen as the custodian of social order and the protector of rashtra (polity). Hereditary kingship started emerging and competitions like chariot races, cattle raids, and games of dice, which previously decided who was worthy of becoming a king, became nominal. Rituals in this era exalted the status of the king over his people. He was occasionally referred to as samrat (supreme ruler). The rajan's increasing political power enabled him to gain greater control over the productive resources. The voluntary gift offering (bali) became compulsory tribute; however, there was no organised system of taxation. Sabha and samiti are still mentioned in later Vedic texts, though, with the increasing power of the king, their influence declined.[78] By the end of the later Vedic age, different kinds of political systems such as monarchical states (rajya), oligarchical states (gana or sangha), and tribal principalities had emerged in India.[78]

According to

Mahajanapada
period.

According to George Erdosy, archaeological data for the period from 1000 to 600 BCE shows a two-tiered settlement pattern in the Ganges Valley, with some "modest central places," suggestive of the existence of simple chiefdoms, with the Kurukshetra district itself displaying a more complex (albeit not yet urbanized) three-tiered hierarchy.[83] Subsequently, (after 600 BCE) there are four tiers of site sizes, including large towns and fortified cities, consistent with an urbanized state-level society.[84]

Economy

Economy in the Vedic period was sustained by a combination of

Iron Age culture.[citation needed
]

The transition of Vedic society from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in the later Vedic age led to an increase in trade and competition for resources.[86] Agriculture dominated the economic activity along the Ganges valley during this period.[87] Agricultural operations grew in complexity and usage of iron implements (krishna–ayas or shyama–ayas, literally black metal or dark metal) increased. Crops of wheat, rice, and barley were cultivated. Surplus production helped to support the centralised kingdoms that were emerging at this time.[45] New crafts and occupations such as carpentry, leather work, tanning, pottery, astrology, jewellery, dying, and winemaking arose.[88] Apart from copper, bronze, and gold, later Vedic texts also mention tin, lead, and silver.[89]

Panis in some hymns refers to merchants, in others to stingy people who hid their wealth and did not perform Vedic sacrifices. Some scholars suggest that Panis were semitic traders, but the evidence for this is slim.[37] Professions of warriors, priests, cattle-rearers, farmers, hunters, barbers, vintners and crafts of chariot-making, cart-making, carpentry, metal working, tanning, making of bows, sewing, weaving, making mats of grass and reed are mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda. Some of these might have needed full-time specialists.[85] There are references to boats and oceans. Book X of the Rigveda refers to both eastern and western oceans. Individual property ownership did not exist and clans as a whole enjoyed rights over lands and herds. Enslavement (dasa, dasi) in the course of war or as a result of non-payment of debt is mentioned. However, slaves worked in households rather than production-related activities.[68]

Religion

A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of Prajapati, a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life

Vedic religion

Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four

Śrautasutras are also considered to be Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the 16 or 17 Śrauta priests and the purohitas.[citation needed
]

The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered inspired poets and seers (in post-Vedic times understood as "hearers" of an eternally existing Veda, Śruti means "what is heard").

The mode of worship was the performance of sacrifices (

Yajus). Yajna involved sacrifice and sublimation of the havana sámagri (herbal preparations) in the fire accompanied by the chanting of the Vedic mantras. The sublime meaning of the word yajna is derived from the Sanskrit verb yaj, which has a three-fold meaning of worship of deities (devapujana), unity (saògatikaraña) and charity (dána).[90] An essential element was the sacrificial fire—the divine Agni
—into which oblations were poured, as everything offered into the fire was believed to reach God. People prayed for abundance of rain, cattle, sons, long life and gaining 'heaven'.

Vedic people believed in the

peepul tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharvaveda.[91] Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later like Dharma, Karma etc. trace their root to the Vedas.[92]

The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were

Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship, both of which are preserved in Zoroastrianism
.

Ethics in the Vedas are based on the concepts of

Rta. Satya is the principle of integration rooted in the Absolute.[93] Whereas, Ṛta is the expression of Satya, which regulates and coordinates the operation of the universe and everything within it.[94][note 9]
Conformity with Ṛta would enable progress whereas its violation would lead to punishment.

Influence on Hinduism

Around the beginning of the Common Era, the

, are essential parts of these later developments.

Literature

padapatha) in Devanagari. The Vedic accent
is marked by underscores and vertical overscores in red.

The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details, but can be correlated to relevant archaeological details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:[8]

  1. Rigvedic text: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic text. Its time span likely corresponds to the Late Harappan culture, Gandhara grave culture and Ochre Coloured Pottery culture.
  2. Mantra language texts: This period includes both the
    Painted Grey Ware (PGW) cultures, and the early Kuru Kingdom
    , dating from c. the 12th to 11th centuries BCE.
  3. Samhita prose texts: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the .
  4. Brahmana prose texts: The
    Śrautasutras (BSS, VadhSS). In the east, Videha
    (N. Bihar and Nepal) is established as the third main political centre of the Vedic period.
  5. Sutra language texts: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to c. 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the
    MaitrU
    ).

Visual arts

In northern India, some very early depictions of deities appear in the art of the

Black and red ware culture (1450–1200 BCE) or the Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BCE), with finds in a wide area, including the area of Mathura.[99]

Archaeology

Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic

Ochre coloured pottery culture was first found approximately between 1950 and 1951, in western Uttar Pradesh, in the Badaun and Bisjuar district.[100] It is thought that this culture was prominent during the latter half of the 2nd millennium, within the transition between the Indus Valley civilization and the end of Harrapan culture.[101] This pottery is typically created with wheel ware, and is ill-fired, to a fine to medium fabric, decorated with a red slip, and occasional black bands1. When this pottery was worked with, it often left an ochre color on the hands, most likely because of water-logging, bad firing, wind action, or a mixture of these factors.[100] This pottery was found all throughout the doab, most of it found in the Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, and Bulandshahr districts, but also existing outside these districts, extending north and south of Bahadrabad.[100] This pottery does, however, seem to exist within different time frames of popularity, ochre colored pottery seeming to occur in areas such as Rajasthan earlier than we see it in the doab, despite the doab being heavily associated with the culture.[100]

Gandhara grave culture refers to the protohistoric cemeteries found in the Gandhara region, stretching all the way from Bajuar to the Indus.[102] These cemeteries seem to follow a set grave structure and "mortuary practice", such as inflexed inhumation and cremation.[103] This culture is thought to occur in 3 stages: the lower, in which burials take place in masonry lined pits, the upper, in which urn burials and cremations are added, and the "surface" level, in which graves are covered with huge stone slabs.[103] In the lower stage, excavators found that these graves are typically 2–3 feet deep, and covered with stones on top.[102] After digging out the stones, skeletons were found facing southwest to northeast, with the head facing one direction, and the hands laying on top of one another.[102] Female skeletons were often found wearing hair pins and jewelry.[102] Pottery is greatly important to this culture, as pottery was often used as a "grave good", being buried with the bodies of the dead.[103] Buried alongside the skeletons, we typically see various pots on top of the body, averaging at about 5 or less pieces of pottery per grave.[103] Within this culture we typically see two kinds of pottery: gray ware, or red ware.[102]

Black and red ware culture was coined as a term in 1946 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.[104] The pottery, as the name suggests, typically has a black rim/inside surface, and a red lower half on the outside of the piece.[104] Red-ware pottery tends to fall into two categories: offering stands, or cooking vessels.[102] Most of these pieces of pottery were open-mouthed bowls that were burnished, painted, or slipped on one side; however, jars, pots and dishes-on-stands have also been found in small quantities.[104] Black and red ware, and the surrounding culture, began its spread during the neolithic period and continues until the early medieval period in India, as well as being found in parts of West Asia and Egypt.[104] There are many theories about the process of its creation, the most popular being the use of an inverted firing technique, or a simultaneous oxidation and reduction firing.[104]

Painted grey ware culture is a significant pottery style that has been linked to a group of people who settled in Sutlej, Ghagger, and the Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys, loosely classified with the early Aryans who migrated to India in the beginning of the Vedic period.[105] It's also thought that the groups that introduced the painted grey ware culture also brought iron technology to the Indo-gangetic plains, making this pottery a momentous mark of the Northern Indian Iron Age.[105] The style of grey-ware often includes clay wheel-thrown into a smooth texture, ash-grey in color, and often decorated with black ink, creating small circular patterns, sometimes spirals, swastikas, or sigmas.[105] Grey-ware pottery is almost exclusively drinking ware, and tends to have three different forms: narrow-waisted, tall drinking glasses, middle-sized drinking goblets, and drinking vases with outturned lips.[102] There was a distinct grey ware culture surrounding the establishment of the pottery, but while the culture is significant, grey ware has only made up 10–15% of found Vedic pottery, a majority of the pottery red ware, as grey ware pottery was seen as a "highly valued luxury".[106]

Puranic chronology of the Vedic period

The

seven rishis thousands of years ago. The start of the reign of Vaivasvata Manu, the Manu of the current kalpa (aeon) and the progenitor of humanity, is dated by some as far back 7350 BCE.[107] The Kurukshetra War, the background-scene of the Bhagavad Gita, which may relate historical events taking place ca. 1000 BCE at the heartland of Āryāvarta,[45][108]
is dated in this chronology at c. 3100 BCE.

See also